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2_ , 

Aspects of Education 



A STUDY IN 

THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY. 



/ BY 




OSCAR BROWNING, M.A., 




KINGS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 




/<> 






2*Zl*tX 


NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: 




E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 




1892. 





The first edition of this volume was edited by Nicholas 
Murray Butler, Ph.D., and published by the Industrial 
Education Association. The several chapters appeared as 
separate articles in Science, during 1887 and 1888. After care- 
ful revision by the author, they are now reproduced as a single 
treatise, and offered as a valuable contribution to the critical 
history of educational doctrines. This edition is published by 
the kind permission of the Industrial Education Association. 



u 






Copyright, 1888, 

BY THE 

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. 



Copyright, 1892, 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 

NEW YORK. 



Teachers^ Professional Library. 
ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
Humanism 5-23 

Influence of the Theologians The Renaissance The Ref- 
ormation Melauchthon John Sturm The Strasburg 

High School Originator of the Classical System Value 

of Humanistic Training As employed by the Jesuits 

Proper Method of Classic Composition The Jesuits' 

Method The Jansenists and their Methods Changes in 

Opinions Value of the Classics Hellenism still in the 

Ascendency Humanism still Powerful. 

CHAPTER II. 
Realism 24-36 

Humanism degenerated into a Study of Words Comenius 

His Idea Thwarted by his Times Milton His Plan 

Physical Exercises Pestalozzi and Milton Pesta- 

lozzi's Plan His Central Idea Froebel Dangers of 

Realism Effects of Tradition. 

CHAPTER III. 

Naturalism, 37-52 

Training for Language Study Appeal to Nature The Three • 

Great Naturalists Rabelais Montaigne Independ- 
ence of Thought Experience rather than Books Method 

in Latin Locke Education The Kind of Teacher 

The Subjects No Verses or Music His Plan Adopted 

Rousseau and his Idea Agrees with Locke Educa- 
tion to Twelfth Year Things, not Words Not Knowl- 
edge, but Capacity Effect of "Emile" High Develop- 
ment or.Natural Development. 

CHAPTER IV. 
The English Public School, 53-63 

Differentiated The Nine Schools of England Winchester 

Westminster Eton Charter House Harrow and . 

Rugby Plans of these Schools Sturm the Author of the 

Public-school Curriculum His Plan Changed by the 

Jesuits Arnold His Teaching Popularity of the Pub- 
lic School Evils Different Schools Needed. 



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ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 



Chapter K* 

HUMANISM. , 

Humanism, Realism, Naturalism. — Since the revival 
of learning, secondary education in Europe has passed 
through three phases, which may he conveniently called 
humanism, realism, and naturalism. The first is 
grounded upon the study of language, and especially of 
the two dead languages, Greek and Latin. The second 
is based upon the study of things instead of words, the 
education of the mind through the eye and the hand. 
Closely connected with this is the study of those things 
which may be of direct influence upon and direct im- 
portance to life. The third is not, in the first instance, 
study at all. It is an attempt to build up the whole 
nature of the man; to educate, first his body, then his 
character, and lastly his mind. All theories of education 
which have taken a practical form during the last three 
hundred years may be ranged under one or other of 

5 



6 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 



these three heads. Modern education, as we know it, is 
an unconscious, but not the less a real, compromise 
between the three ends. If we consider each separately, 
we shall be in the best position to understand the system 
to which they have given rise. 

Humanism.— It is important to remember that the 
reformation in Europe happened, at the time when the 
best European intellects were directed towards the study 
of the classics. This was not a mere coincidence. The 
revival of learning, as it is called, that is, the closer and 
more intimate acquaintance with Greek and Latin texts, 
which had before been known through translations and 
paraphrases, was in itself the principal cause of a refor- 
mation. The critical spirit thus engendered, the dissatis- 
faction aroused with the teaching of the old religion, 
the revolt against the schoolmen, were also efficient in 
bringing about the reformation. The education of the 
middle ages was encyclopedic, in aim if not in reality. 
The seven-years course of study— trivium and quad- 
rivium — was intended to comprise everything that a 
man need know. Grammar taught the whole science of 
words, dialectics furnished a scholar with the whole 
armor of argument, rhetoric invested him not only with 
eloquence in speech but with the more graceful gifts 
of poetry and imagination. The science of music, the 
science of numbers, the power of measuring the earth 
and the heavens, furnished out the completely educated 
man. Hand-books of the middle ages intended for 
students cover the whole ground of human knowledge. 
The " Tresor " of Brunette Latini, the master of Dante, 
is divided into three books ; the first book into five 



HUMANISM. 



parts, the last two into two parts each. The first book 
speaks of the origin of all things. After this comes 
philosophy, divided into its two component parts of 
theory and practice. Theory has three great divisions, 
— theology, the knowledge of God ; physics, the knowl- 
edge of the world; and mathematics, the knowledge of 
the four scieuces which form the quadrivium. Practice 
has also three divisions, — ethics, to teach us how to 
govern ourselves ; economics, to teach us how to govern 
our family and our belongings; and politics, the high- 
est of all sciences and the most noble of human occupa- 
tions, which teaches us to govern towns, kingdoms, and 
nations, in both peace and war. As a prelude to these 
nobler sciences stand the preliminary arts of grammar, 
dialectics, and rhetoric. 

Influence of the Theologians. — It is true that before 
the reformation this noble plan of education had become 
narrowed and formalized. The church had pressed all 
knowledge into its service, and no form of knowledge 
was highly valued which did not contribute to the ser- 
vice of the church. The methods of teaching became 
corrupted : memory was substituted for thought. 
There was a striking contrast between the high aims of 
the best part of the middle ages and the scanty attain- 
ments of its decadence ; but the shell was still there, 
and as long as that remained, life might be poured into 
it. 

The Renaissance. — The renaissance swept away this 
effort as a dream. Scholars brought face to face with 
Virgil and Horace, with Cicero and Plato, were so won 
by the charm of a new and marvellous language, that 



8 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

all their strength was spent in explaining and appreciat- 
ing it. The literary results of the renaissance were two- 
fold. On the one hand, it aroused the pure enjoyment 
of literary form and expression ; on the other, by stimu- 
lating a more exact scholarship and a more minute 
philosophy, it urged on the human mind to inquiry and 
to rebellion. 

The Reformation. — Just as the stream of this revival 
was in full flood, the reformation came, and separated the 
culture of Protestants from that of the old church. We 
do not sufficiently realize what a wrench this was. We 
are so accustomed to regard Protestantism as a stimulus 
to independence and originality of thought that we do 
not consider what a loss was at first suffered by the 
breach with the old religion. The whole culture of the 
middle ages was intimately connected with the church. 
If we take Dante as an example, who was steeped in all 
the knowledge of his time, we find that, in everything 
he wrote, the ecclesiastical aspect is as prominent as the 
poetical. There is no moment when he has not an 
equal right to stand among the doctors of theology and 
with the poets of Parnassus. Those who broke with 
the church of Rome had to create a culture of their own, 
and the culture which they created was naturally that 
which then prevailed in the church which they were 
leaving. 

Melanchthon. — It was this that gave Melanchthon his 
importance in the reformation, and that earned for him 
the name of the " teacher of Germany." He was by na- 
ture an exact scholar. He was well read in both Greek 
and Latin. He may have intended to fill up the other 



HUMANISM. 



divisions of learning, but both his taste and his powers 
led him to confine himself to those departments in 
which he excelled. He said to his school-boys, ' What- 
ever you wish to learn, learn grammar first/ He rec- 
ommended the study of Cicero, Livy, Virgil, Ovid, and 
Quintilian, and, among Greek writers, Homer, Herodo- 
tus, Demosthenes, and Lucian. He recommended the 
writing of Latin letters and Latin verses, with Latin 
speeches and themes for the more advanced stu- 
dents. 

Melaiichthon might have intended, if life lasted, to 
deal successively with other branches of the mediaeval 
curriculum, but his own tastes and the success of his 
first efforts determined his whole career. He made the 
study of language in all its branches current coin for 
Protestants, but here he stopped. 

John Sturm. — Whatever may have been the influence 
of Melanchthon on Protestant schools, there is no doubt 
that they received their form from John Sturm of Stras- 
burg, who was rector of Strasburg high school for forty- 
five years, from 1538 to 1583. We find his name in the 
pages of Ascham, and it is very probable that his plan of 
study formed the model on which the new college of 
Westminster was organized, but his influence extended 
not only to England but to all Protestants countries. 
He was a politician as well as a school-master ; and was 
in constant correspondence with the leaders of the Prot- 
estant party all over Europe. His great powers were 
devoted to an elaborate plan for teaching the Latin 
language, in all its extent and in its fullest elegance, 
to school-boys. 



10 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

The Strasburg High School. — We have a complete ac- 
count of the organization of his school, and there is this 
remarkable fact about it, — the boys were not only made 
to proceed from step to step towards final excellence, 
but they were strictly prohibited from taking more than 
one step at a time. In the examinations which were 
held at the close of each year, it was not only a crime to 
have omitted to learn the set subjects for that period, 
but it was as great a crime to have learned more than had 
been set. Not only was the human mind tied and 
bound within the limits of a curriclum, but individ- 
ual minds were prohibited from outstepping the limits 
of that curriculum in any particular. 

The Originator of the Classical System. — Sturm must 
be regarded, more than any one else, as the creator for 
Protestants of the classical system of English public- 
school education as it is remembered by many who are 
still living. In this system, boys began to learn the 
Latin grammar before they learned English grammar ; 
they were set to do Latin verses before they could write 
Latin prose. The Latin taught was not the masculine 
language of Lucretius and Caesar, but the ornate and 
artificial diction of Horace and Virgil, and, above all, of 
Cicero. There is no doubt that this system, narrow and 
faulty as it was, gave a good education, so long as peo- 
ple believed in it. To know Horace and Virgil by heart 
became the first duty of an English gentleman. 
Speeches in parliament were considered incomplete if 
they did not contain at least one Latin quotation. A 
false quantity was held to be a greater crime than a slip 
in logical argument. Cicero not only influenced the edu- 



HUMAXISM. II 



cation of English statesmen, but had no inconsiderable 
effect upon their conduct. The vanity of serf-inspec- 
tion, the continual reference to what is dignified and 
becoming, coupled with a high-minded devotion to duty 
and a strong if somewhat romantic patriotism, distin- 
guished English statesmen in the eighteenth century as 
much as they distinguished the great orator of Rome. 

Value of the Humanistic Training. — There is, indeed, 
much to be said for humanistic training as a discipline 
of the mind. It is true that it deals only with words, and 
its highest efforts are, to decide what expression is abso- 
lutely best under certain circumstances. It is no light 
thing to render an English sentence, ornate and idio- 
matic, into a Latin sentence which exactly represents 
its meaning and which is equally ornate and idiomatic. 
It is difficult to analyze the subtle tact by which a schol- 
ar decides a particular reading in a particular passage 
to be right and all other readings to be wrong, or by 
which he determines one Latin or Greek verse to be so 
decidedly superior to another, that their comparative 
merit admits of no argument or hesitation. Any num- 
ber of competently trained scholars would agree together 
in a matter of this kind, and yet it is entirely beyond 
argument that not one of them, if cross-examined in a 
witness-box, could give reasons for his judgment which 
would satisfy a jury. The question is determined by 
the most delicate weighing of probabilities, by a subtle 
tact similar to that by which the most complicated oper- 
ation of an artificer is carried on. Is not this the very 
process which we have to apply to the most difficult 
problems of life ? 



1 2 A SPE C TS OF ED UCA TION. 

Above Mathematical Training. — The organon of 
mathematical reasoning is a far clumsier and blunter 
instrument than the organon by which humanistic diffi- 
culties are decided, while the organon of scientific rea- 
soning is clumsier and blunter still. Mathematics deals 
for the most part with things which can be accurately 
apprehended by the mind. It aims, more than any- 
thing else, at exactness, and although in its higher 
branches it admits hypotheses of probability, yet its prin- 
cipal object is certainty. Science goes farther than this; 
it not only admits certainty of apprehension, but it 
claims that it should touch, see, and handle the matters 
with which it deals. Few results can stand this coarse 
analysis. If biology and chemistry refuse to acknowledge 
any truth which cannot be demonstrated to the senses, 
they put out of their reach those truths which are the 
most important to know, and which can be arrived at by 
probability alone. If mathematics admits of demon- 
stration which shall give a clear proof to anyone who 
asks it, it removes from its sphere those judgments which 
rest upon the trained instinct of experts, and which can 
only be made clear to one who has undergone a similar 
training. 

A Preparation for Life.— Eegarded from this point of 
view, humanism was no bad preparation for active life or 
for devotion to any other study. It had the advantage of 
being small in compass, and of limits which were easily 
ascertained. Devotion to humanistic studies, properly 
understood, did not exclude application to other studies 
which might be considered more grave and important. 
William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer at twenty- 



HUMANISM. 1 3 



two, prime minister at twenty-four, was a first-rate 
humanist, as he was an excellent mathematician ; but 
this did not prevent him from being an admirable ora- 
tor, a close reasoner, a profound student of history and 
politics, and a political economist far in advance of his 
time. Much as we may regret that education in Prot- 
estant countries, especially in England, Holland, and 
Sweden, was narrowed by the humanistic tendency, we 
must not refuse to give that training all the credit 
which it deserves. 

Humanism as Employed by the Jesuits. — Humanism, 
in the hands of Sturm and his followers, was at least 
intelligible and masculine. Although it was founded 
upon a narrow basis, its aims were clear and honest. 
In the next two hundred years, humanistic teaching- 
was to undergo an influence of a very different charac- 
ter, which, maintaining the outward show, changed the 
substance and turned what was a modified blessing into 
a decided curse. The Jesuit schools founded in the 
sixteenth century obtained so much vogue in the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth that they influenced the whole 
of European education, Protestant as well as Catholic. 
They had one title to respect, and one only. They were 
the first to bring the individual teacher face to face 
with the individual pupil. AVhatever their objects may 
have been, and whatever were the ends for which they 
intended to use their influence, there can be no doubt 
that they did from the first what they still do, — attempt 
to study the working of each individual mind and the 
beat of each single heart. Here their merit ends. 
They desired that the hearts of their pupils should be 



14 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

devoted to them, and not to humanity, and that their 
minds should never move out of the limits which they 
themselves should fix. Humanism lay ready to their 
hands. Here was a subject on which infinite ingenuity 
might be expended and endless time wasted. To be- 
come a complete master of the style of Cicero, Horace, 
or Ovid might take a lifetime ; yet the result was showy : 
few could understand its merits or the processes by 
which it was reached. To declaim on speech-day a long 
alcaic ode on the Immaculate Virgin, or to turn the 
Song of Solomon into the language of Ovid's " Art of 
Love," was an achievement which all might admire. 

They Overturned Latin Composition. — The Jesuits 
were the inventors of that bane of humanistic education, 
the exaggerated reverence paid to Latin verse composi- 
tion. What can be a worse training for the human 
mind ? A mind is called well trained in language when 
it can conceive accurately the idea which it wishes to 
express, and can express that idea in language which 
no one can misunderstand. The whole theory of original 
Latin verse-composition is opposed to this. The pupil 
is set to write a copy of verses on a set subject, be it 
spring or winter, autumn or summer. His notion of 
what he should say is very hazy, but under pressure he 
w T ill write down twenty so-called ideas for twenty lines 
of Latin verse. To expand these he will have recourse 
to his gradus, a book which the Jesuits have the credit of 
inventing. He will there find so-called synonyms of the 
Latin words he has chosen, which cannot really express 
the same sense, for in any language very few pairs of 
words are to be found with precisely the same meaning. 



HUMANISM. IS 



If his synonyms are insufficient for the purpose, he will 
fill up the line with epithets chosen from the gradus, 
not because they are just, or appropriate, or needful, 
but because they scan. If these are not enough, his 
handbook will furnish him with phrases of greater 
length, bearing more or less upon the subject, and even 
with entire verses which he may introduce, so far as he 
can do so without fear of detection. To spend much 
time on this process is to play and juggle with the hu- 
man mind, to make pretence at thought when there is 
no thought at all, to mark time instead of marching, to 
work a treadmill that grinds no corn, to weave a web 
which must be perpetually unravelled ; yet in the latter 
half of the eighteenth century Ave see original Latin 
verses the chosen task of school-boys and a too frequent 
pastime for statesmen. 

The Proper Method of Classic Composition. — Let us 
not condemn all composition in dead languages. To 
turn the masterpieces of modern poetry into an exact 
Greek or Latin equivalent may be the worthy occupa- 
tion of the best-trained scholars. It has more than once 
happened that the copy has been more poetical, more 
musical, more worthy, than the original itself. Nor is 
imitation of any literature which we are studying to be 
despised. The Italian sonnets of Arthur Hallam, the 
French lyrics of Swinburne, if not genuine poetry, are 
at least precious fruits of the poetical mind. But if 
these fruits are to be produced at all, it is necessary that 
they should be produced without compulsion. Train 
your scholar in the best examples of Greek and Latin, 
let him study Virgil, Homer, and the Greek tragedians 



1 6 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

night and day, show him all the poetry they contain, let 
him compare them with the best productions of his 
native tongue, and the probability is, that, if he has any 
creative faculty, he will begin to imitate and will write 
Greek and Latin verses without coercion. 

The Wrong Method. — But set him down on a form 
with fifty other boys, and bid him write poetry on a 
subject for w T hich he does not care, in a language which 
he does not understand and which is often unfitted to 
the thoughts which he has to express, guide him by 
mechanical rules, and assist him with mechanical hand- 
books : you will then find that what ought to have been 
a pleasure has been a barren toil, and that his mind is 
dulled by the effort. Even at the present daj^, after all 
that has been written against Latin verses by those who 
are most fit to judge, they hold an inordinate place in 
English classical education, and give us good reason to 
pass the strongest condemnation on the sect which in- 
troduced them. 

The Jesuit's Method. — The falseness of Jesuit princi- 
ples of education goes further than this. They can 
best be judged on the great annual festival when the 
parents are invited to see the triumphs of their chil- 
dren. Speeches in different languages are delivered by 
children of various ages, often with a pathos that draws 
tears from those who hear them: this is a good part of 
their training. The head boy reads out the list of those 
who have gained prizes. After reciting a string of 
names, he suddenly pauses, thus attracting the attention 
of all present. The prefect of studies, who stands be- 
hind him, comes to his rescue, and utters the boy's own 






HUMAiXISM. 



name, which he has been too modest to pronounce him- 
self. Had he repeated it among the others, it would 
have attracted no attention, but the modesty which 
avoided the appearance of self-laudation was used to 
extort the applause of the multitude. 

The Examination. — The boys are examined viva voce. 
Nothing can be more fair. Any one at random is asked 
to take a Virgil or Sophocles, to submit any passage for 
translation, and to ask any questions he pleases. If the 
examiner does his work honestly, he soon finds what a 
mistake he has made. He submits a passage for trans- 
lation. The boy makes a mistake; the examiner stops 
him. The boy blunders ; the examiner insists upon a 
correct translation, which takes a long time in coming. 
There is general discomfort and confusion. The whole 
sympathy of the audience is with the good-looking in- 
genuous youth on the platform, and not with the bald- 
headed pedant who is examining him. The examiner 
asks a question; the boy answers it wrong. As often as 
the examiner rejects the answer given to him, so often 
does the impatience of the audience arise against the 
stupid man who does not know how to ask questions 
that the boys can answer. 

The Jansenists. — If the Jesuits had no faults of their 
own, they at least deserve the condemnation of posterity 
for suppressing their rivals the Jansenists, who offered 
to France the best opportunity of receiving a humanistic 
education devoted to the noblest ends. The object of 
the distinguished men who founded the little schools of 
Port Royal was exactly the opposite to that of their 
Jesuit rivals. They desired to make the moral charac- 



1 8 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

ter of their pupils strong and independent, and to train 
their intellects from the first in the severe studies of 
close and logical reasoning. In the individual attention 
they gave to their pupils, they were superior even to the 
Jesuits. The whole number of children that passed 
through their schools was small ; and no teacher was 
allowed to have charge of more than five or six, while 
the masters were thus able to study the characters and 
capacities of their pupils in the minutest details. Pains 
were always taken to avoid undue familiarity. Between 
the pupils themselves, as between their professors, there 
was to reign a dignified and temperate courtesy, removed 
equally from sickly sentimentality and from rough and 
boisterous good-fellowship. 

Their Methods. — The grammar of Port Eoyal was not 
a collection of rules to be learned by heart, but a treatise 
on logic, which forms the basis of all grammar. Where 
rales or examples had, of necessity, to be learned, they 
were, in disregard of precedent, placed in such a form 
as to be most easily remembered. The Jansenists were 
guilty of another innovation which gave a great handle 
to their opponents. They taught the dead languages of 
antiquity from the living tongue of their own France. 
What impiety, said the Jesuits, thus to vulgarize studies 
which ought never to be presented to us without solemn 
and even sacred associations ! We hear little or nothing 
in the Port Royal schools of the cultivation of Latin 
verses. The air which they breathed was too bracing 
for that trivial exercise. On the other hand, they did 
great service to the study of Greek. It is true that the 
Jesuits maintained Greek as a prominent study in their 



HUMANISM. 19 



schools, which the University of Paris hud been com- 
plied to surrender by the clamor of parents. Yet the 
f* Garden of Greek Roots," an attempt to popularize the 
study by imparting the most necessary knowledge of 
Greek in French verses, remained for a long time a 
standard school-book, and was used for that purpose by 
so careful and exact a scholar as the historian Gibbon. 

If the Jansenist schools had been suffered to exist, 
they might have profoundly affected not only the 
course of study in France, but the minds and charac- 
ters of Frenchmen. European nations, in following 
the French models of excellence which reigned without 
dispute before the French revolution, might have had 
a more masculine type held up for their admiration. 
This, however, was not to be ; and French literature, 
impregnated with Ciceronianism, had been but slightly 
touched' with the chastening influences of Hellenic 
studies or of logical precision. 

Changes in Opinions. — Humanism has undergone 
many changes in the last generation, and it is difficult 
to forecast its future. The position which it held in 
education after the revival of learning was due to two 
opinions about it, which w T ere believed very generally, 
but not always very consistently. On the one hand, it 
was thought to be the best gymnastic for the mind, the 
best mechanical exercise which the human faculties 
could be put through. On the other hand, the litera- 
tures of Greece and Borne, which were the subject-mat- 
ter of humanism, were regarded as absolutely the things 
best worth study, not only from their intrinsic merit, 
but from their forming the best introduction to all 



20 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 



modern studies. Not many years ago modern geogra- 
phy was taught in the most distinguished of English 
schools by what was called a comparative atlas and a 
comparative geography-book. Ancient geography was 
taught first as the thing most needful, and modern 
names were only dealt with as the correlatives of ancient 
ones. A good English style was supposed to be acquired 
from the study of classics. Latin verses formed the 
best introduction to English poetry : Latin themes were 
the best method of learning all general information. 
Even now at our universities many people would main- 
tain that the science of modern statesmanship could not 
be better learned than from Aristotle's - Politics." Both 
these points of view have suffered rude shocks. 

Value of the Classics.— Undoubtedly, from consider- 
ations which were indicated above. Greek and Latin, and 
Greek especially, do form an admirable training for the 
mind. Latin grammar is more precise, more logical, and 
in these respects harder, than the grammars of modern 
languages. The Greeks were probably the most gifted 
people who ever lived, and their language was adapted 
in a wonderful manner to express most perfectly their 
most subtle thoughts. To a mature scholar, who rec- 
ognizes every shade of his meaning, Thucvdides will 
appear untranslatable. The words as he puts them 
down, whether grammatical or not, express precisely 
what he intends to say, with a vividness and a direct- 
ness which cannot be surpassed. To express all that he 
would tell us in English would require long clumsy 
paraphrases, and even these would not express it alti 
gether. The effort made by a modern mind to follow in 



HUMANISM, 21 



its sublest folds every sinuosity of the thought of Plato 
or Aristotle is in itself a very valuable training; but to 
profit by this training, a considerable standard in the 
languages must have been reached, and as years go on, 
the number who reach this standard is fewer and fewer. 
The foundations have been undermined, boys and par- 
ents avoid the trouble of learning dead languages, and 
teachers are ready to escape the trouble of teaching 
them. The result is, that only the chosen minority are 
in the position of profiting by a training which was 
once universal ; and these have such distinguished and 
apprehensive intellects that they would almost always 
make a training for themselves. 

Hellenism still in the Ascendency. — If humanism 
has suffered by the growth of a disbelief in its powers 
as a gymnastic, there is no sign that its intrinsic worth 
is rated less highly than it was. Indeed, as w T e begin 
to appreciate more exactly the necessary elements of 
culture, our respect for humanism grows greater. We 
are told that there are two great elements in modern 
civilization, — Hebraism and Hellenism. There is no 
fear at present that the first will not be well looked 
after. No Christian country is without an efficient 
church establishment; and the training of the clergy in 
all their several degrees, w T ho are the chosen guardians 
of Hebraism, is more extensive and more satisfactory 
than in previous generations. Take away Hebraism, and 
the most valuable part of our intellectual furniture 
which remains is Hellenism. That can only be pre- 
served by the combined efforts of all those who are in- 
debted to it, and who have learned its value. This is 



22 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

the special function of schools and universities. It is 
remarkable that each attack made on the study of Greek 
has produced some new effort to make the study of 
Hellenism more general. The establishment of the 
English Hellenic society was the direct result of an at- 
tempt to exclude Greek from the entrance examinations 
of the university, The growth of science has been coin- 
cident with the revival of acted Greek plays, both in 
England and America. 

It means more than a Knowledge of Greek. — The dead 
languages which were once reverenced as a training are 
now valued for what they can teach us; and scholarship 
is defined, not as the art of interchanging in the most 
ingenious manner the idioms of the Greek, Latin, and 
English languages, but as the calling-back to life of the 
Hellenic world in all its branches. Hellenism need not 
always mean the study of Greek life and thought. 
Egyptian culture preceded Hellenic culture. The 
Greeks went to study in the schools of Egypt, as the 
Eomans frequented the universities of Greece, and as 
the English visit those of Germany. As the learning of 
the Egyptians, whatever it may have been, has been ab- 
sorbed for our purposes partly by Hellenism and partly 
by Hebraism, so Hellenism itself may be absorbed, so 
far as it deserves to be, by modern literature. One 
who knew Milton by heart would be no poor Hebraist, 
and he who possessed the whole of Goethe would be no 
mean Hellenist. 

Humanism still Powerful. — But this time has not yet 
arrived, if humanism suffers now from a slight obscura- 
tion, due to its unfortunate attempt to claim too much 



HUMANISM. 23 

mastery over the human mind; yet there is no fear of 
its being materially obscured, and the assistance which 
it may yet render the human race, in her search after 
the good, the beautiful, and the true, should command 
the sympathy, and stimulate the efforts, of every man 
to whom those objects are dear. 



24 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION, 



ftfjapttr XX* 

REALISM. 

Humanism Degenerated into a Study of Words.- 
Shelley, once writing to Godwin, expressed his surprise 
that so much time and thought had been given to the 
teaching of words, and so little to the teaching of 
things. Under the influence of Sturm and the Jesuits, 
humanism, or classical education, degenerated into a 
mere study of words. Little attention was paid to what 
was said : the chief point was how it was said. Cam- 
bridge undergraduates thirty years ago, taught by the 
most distinguished scholar in the university, when they 
read a Greek play or a Latin poem, heard little about 
the plot, or the allusions or their relations to modern 
writings of the same kind. Attention was exclusively 
paid to readings, to the delicate variations in the mean- 
ings of words, to grammatical forms, to letters and 
accents; yet the teacher was a man full of love of 
English and other literatures, and steeped in the 
knowledge of them. The best scholars turned out of 
the university were surprised to find, as a result of 
their training, how little they knew of the literary 
masterpieces which they had spent a great portion of 
their lives in learning to construe. The main aspects 
of ancient life were entirely unknown to them, unless 



REALISM, 25 



accident had led them to learn them. Yet the teaching 
of things rather than words had been advocated by 
great educationalists, both abroad and in England. 

Comenius. — The typical realist in education is Come- 
nius. His whole life was devoted to the improvement of 
educational methods. He was one of the first to appeal 
to the eye as an instrument of instruction; but his most 
important work was the "Great Didactics," a complete 
treatise on the art of education. The central idea of 
this book was that the education of every man should 
follow his natural growth. Take the whole circle of 
sciences with which the mature man can be acquainted, 
— arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, ethics, politics, and 
many others, — what are these but names for departments 
of knowledge, which the human mind creates for itself ? 
If we take away from them their repulsive appellations, 
and consider them in their simplest elements, we find 
that they are nothing but what the child learns from its 
earliest infancy. 

All Departments of Knowledge Available to the Mind 
of the Child. — " Metaphysics " is a hard word, yet what is 
it except the science of ideas as apprehended by the 
mind ? A child four years old was once lying in bed, 
recovering from an illness, when his father and mother 
came to the bedside. The child described the feeling 
it had in its leg. The father said, "That is pins and 
needles." The child thought to itself, "How can my 
father make so rash a statement? What he means, 
expressed in accurate language, is, that what I am de- 
scribing sounds to him as the sensation which, if he felt, 
he would call pins and needles; yet how can he tell that 



ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 



the sensation which I am now feeling is the same as that 
which he denotes by that name?" There was present to 
the child's mind the whole problem of the relativity 
of knowledge, yet that has sometimes been found hard 
even for men to grasp. In the same way, what is the 
knowledge of natural phenomena, such as fire, rain, 
and snow, but the knowledge of physics? What is the 
ability to find his way about his own village but the 
rudiments of geography? What are his family annals 
but the beginnings of history? The government of the 
household would teach him domestic economy, the ad- 
ministration of his native town would teach him politics, 
the rules of simple behavior would teach him ethics : 
take away the bugbear of repulsive nomenclature, and 
you will find every science can be studied in its simplest 
elements from the beginning of life. 

The Idea of Conienius.— Comenius regarded the sci- 
ences which were accessible to human knowledge as an 
ever-widening circle, to be learned by child, boy, and 
man in the measure for which their strength is adapted. 
When it is possible in this way, by following the course 
of nature itself, to arrive at the knowledge of every- 
thing that is worth knowing, why should we confine the 
growing mind in the trammel of mere language? From 
the mother's school the child would pass to the national 
school ; one existing in every house, the other in every 
parish. From this he will go, as years advance, to the 
gymnasium, which is to be found in every large town; 
and thence, if strength admits, to the university, which 
exists in every province. 
Thwarted by his Times.— The didactic theories of 



REALISM. 27 



oinenius met with a strange fate. His manhood was 
learly coincident with the Thirty Years' War, which 
nade educational experiments impossible in Germany. 
3e came to England just as the civil war was breaking 
>ut. That did not prevent his proposals from attracting 
the attention of the parliament ; and they would have 
[riven him for his experiments some large college, either 
in town or country, had not political troubles made it 

nipossible to do so. He was taken up by the Protestant 
powers of Europe, partly because they represented the 
greater spirit of progress, and partly because they 
were opposed to the exaggerated humanism of the 
Catholics. Had he lived a hundred years earlier, the 
effect of his teaching would have been far more power- 
ful. Had Oomenius, instead of Melanchthon, been the 
preceptor of Germany, Catholics and Protestants might 
have been divided in education, as they were in religion, 
but the world would have been enriched by a training of 
wider scope and greater possibilities. Thwarted by the 
political troubles of his time, his teaching never arrived 
at its full development, and had little effect upon the 
world until it received a new shape at the hands of 
Pestalozzi and Froebel. 

Milton.— The learning of things instead of words 
found a powerful advocate in England in the person of 
John Milton. His " Tractate on Education" is one of 
the most gorgeous dreams of a complete training ever 
conceived and elaborated by an educational theorist. 
He admits that it is right to learn the languages of those 
people who have at any time been most industrious after 

wisdom, but he asserts that language is only the in- 



28 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 



strument which conveys to us things useful to b< 
known. "Though a linguist," he says, "should pride 
himself to have all the tongues that Babel cleft the 
world into, yet, if he have not studied the solid things 
m them as well as the words in lexicons, he were noi 
so much to be esteemed a learned man as any yeoman 
or tradesman, competently wise in Ids mother dialect 
only. " 

His Plan-First Stage.-He defines a complete and 
generous education as that which fits a man to perform 
justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both 
private and public, of peace and war. The Latin 
language, taught with the Italian pronunciation, is to 
lay the foundation of good morality, "infusing into 
their young breasts such an ingenuous and noble ardor as 
would not fail to make many of them renowned and 
matchless men." Varro and Columella are to teach, not 
only Latin, but agriculture,— how to recover the bad 
soil and to know the waste that is made of good. 
Aristotle and Pliny are to give instruction in science. 
Mathematics, comprising arithmetic, geometry, as- 
tronomy, and trigonometry, have a separate course of 
their own, from which progress is to be made to fortifica- 
tion, architecture, engineering, and navigation. Theo- 
retical studies in these and other similar branches are 
to be supplemented by practical training given by 
experts in the several pursuits. Not until this broad 
foundation of theory and practice has been laid are the 
pupils to read the works of those poets who treat of 
country lore. 

The Second Stage.— The next stage is to lay the 



REALISM. 



bundations of philosophy and ethics, the knowledge 

f virtue and the hatred of vice. Plato, Xenophon, 

Jicero, Plutarch, are to be read, not for their language 

nlv, but for the ethical teaching which they contain. 

Vfter ethics succeeds rhetoric, to form the tongue and 

he imagination of the future orator. Italian is used 

o give a soft and melodious pronunciation ; Greek 

nd Latin tragedies, with the humanists the food of 

chool-boys, are reserved for the completion of the 

hetorician's art. To this succeeds the study of politics, 

earned from the great masters of law from Moses to 

Justinian, continued down to the laws of our own 

constitution. Sundays are now to be spent in the 

ligher branches of theology, and the scriptures are to be 

ead in their original tongues. Not till now comes the 

study of history and poetry, mixed with a certain amount 

of logic ; and then, and not till then, are the scholars 

permitted to write for themselves. Original composition, 

instead of being, as among the Jesuits, the principal 

mental discipline even of young children, is to be 

reserved until the mind has been thoroughly penetrated 

both with matter and with manner. 

Physical Exercises. — A large portion of the proposed 
training is devoted to exercise. "In those vernal 
seasons of the year/ 5 says the poet, "when the air is 
calm and bracing, it were an injury and sullenness 
against nature not to go out and see her riches and par- 
take in her rejoicing with heaven and earth. At this 
time the pupils might ride out with prudent and staid 
guides to all places of strength and commodities of 



30 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION'. 



building, and of soil for towns and tillage, harbors and 
ports for trade." 

Not a Plan for the Masses. — Milton, in this vision of 
the future, does not intend to sketch a scheme of 
popular education, but one suited for select pupils and 
select teachers, It is strange that the advice of one who 
was himself a school-master should have been so much 
neglected by the brothers of his profession. This may 
be explained by the fact that Milton wrote for an age in 
which Latin was the universal language, the common 
means of communication between scholars. The troubles 
of the seventeenth century left little room for the ap- 
plication of his theories; and, when society had become 
sufficiently settled to adopt them, Latin had lost its 
place in the world of learning, and the standard of 
humanism had been raised aloft by the Jesuits. 

Pestalozzi and Milton. — The establishment of realism 
as an integral part of education is due to the French 
revolution, and it is inseparable from the name of Pes- 
talozzi. There could not be a greater contrast than 
between Milton and Pestalozzi. Milton's educational 
scheme was derived, on the one hand from his poetical 
imagination, and on the other from his scorn for the 
shallowness and frivolity of some of the statesmen with 
whom he lived. Pestalozzi learned the principles of his 
art in the care of poor orphans and in the hard experi- 
ence of his own checkered life. Milton's plan, like 
that of Plato, was adapted for a select number of rulers. 

Pestalozzi's Plan. — Pestalozzi's plan was framed for 
the benefit of very little children, and has only been 
gradually seen to be applicable to all departments of 



REALISM. 31 



education. Iu the year 1798, the village of Stanz, near 
the lake of Lucerne in Switzerland, was burned by the 
French, and a great part of the inhabitants murdered, 
because they would not receive the constitution offered 
to them by the directory of Paris. The children who 
escaped the slaughter Avere left homeless and orphans, 
and Pestalozzi was asked to take care of them. He 
established himself in a large deserted convent, deprived 
of all means of sustenance. He lived with the children 
by day, and slept with them by night, sharing the poor 
food which could be got together for their common sup- 
port. It was by this close contact with the child-mind 
that Pestalozzi, almost himself a child, learned some of 
the deepest secrets of education. 

No traveller should look down from the Ehigi upon 
the valley where Stanz lies, without reverencing it as 
the birthplace of educational ideas which are destined 
to revolutionize our system of training. Yet when I 
rang, a few years ago, at the convent gate, the good 
sister of charity who opened the door for me had never 
heard of the name of Pestalozzi, and knew nothing of 
the great Christian work which had been carried on 
within her Avails. 

His Central Idea. — The central idea of Pestalozzi was 
to train the mind through the senses. Humanism, deal- 
ing with words alone, had depended mainly upon the 
memory. Children learned lon^ lists of Latin and 
Greek nouns, long rules of Latin and Greek construc- 
tion. Pestalozzi had no books. One of his best 
materials for instruction was an old piece of tapestry 
embroidered with animals. The children were taught 



32 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

to see, to touch, to taste, to smell, and to report exactly 
what their senses had taught them. By ingenious 
methods the first simple operations of the senses were 
made to lead insensibly to the higher operations of the 
mind. Milton had recommended that the rudiments of 
mathematics should be taught playing, as the old man- 
ner was. Pestalozzi made this plan a reality. 

Would Use the Immediate Environment. — Festalozzi 
taught us to make the fullest use of a keen observation 
of young children, of their quick apprehension of what 
immediately surrounds them, and of their surprising 
power of retaining what really interests them. He also 
taught us to follow, in the most loving and even servile 
manner, the growth of each child's mind, and of the 
child-mind as a whole. Yet it cannot be said that he 
was very successful as a practical teacher, and many 
who have posed as his disciples have been great failures. 

To force children by compulsion to learn many things 
by heart is the easiest, and it is also the most stupid and 
the most unfruitful, method of education. To follow 
the growth of their minds, and to adapt the training of 
each instant to their needs, require the patience of a 
saint and the insight of a philosopher, and these quali- 
ties are seldom found. 

Froefcel. — Froebcl may be regarded as one who has 
worked out with great minuteness and success a par- 
ticular part of Pestalozzrs teaching. The kindergarten 
system, as it is called, rests upon the assumption that 
the senses of a child are to be first dealt with, and that 
it is by their means that the intelligence can be best 
aroused. Froebel, starting with the care of very young 



REALISM, 33 



children, was able to reduce their education to some- 
thing like a system. They are taught by degrees to see 
clearly form and color ; to imitate them in various ways ; 
to distinguish by the touch hard and soft, cold and hot ; 
to train their ears to delicate sounds, and their mouths 
to refined and expressive speech. Their restlessness is 
utilized for social drill and dances. A child is encour- 
aged to imitate just what he understands, and no more. 
It is impossible to see a kindergarten class, even when 
composed of the youngest gutter children, without feel- 
ing that this must in time be recognized as the only fit 
education for the infant-mind. 

His Plan Applicable to Higher Schools. — But it is a 
mistake to suppose that the principles of Eroebel are 
applicable only to the training of very young children. 
It is as natural for the brain to grow and to exert itself 
as it is for the arms and legs to stretch themselves. Our 
inherited traditional methods of education are too often 
the swaddling-clothes of the mind, which impede its 
growth rather than assist its development. In schools 
higher than the kindergarten we have yet to learn that 
pleasure is a far more potent instrument of training 
than pain. Many teachers value lessons for their very 
harshness and repulsiveness, and take no pains that the 
mind should pass easily from the known to the unknown 
with ever-growing delight and satisfaction. Far too 
much stress is laid on mere memory. Memory depends 
on interest. Children will recollect accurately whatever 
has deeply roused them at any time. If we secure in- 
terest, memory will follow of itself. Again: schools 
spend far too much time on a set course of study. 



34 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION, 

Pestalozzi and Froebel learned all they knew by the 
slavish following of the growing mind. It is probable 
that in no two minds do the faculties develop in pre- 
cisely the same order. 

That curriculum is best which is adapted to the great- 
est number of minds, but no curriculum could be 
adapted to all minds. Just in proportion as the course 
of study laid down in school is rigid and unalterable, so 
far will it fail to reach a large number of those for whom 
it is intended. Just as, in elementary education, pay- 
ment by results is opposed to the whole spirit of Pesta- 
lozzi's and FroebeFs teaching, so in our higher education 
we cannot obtain the highest level of instruction unless 
we assign a lower place to examinations. 

The Dangers of Realism. — There is no fear that in 
the present day realistic education — the learning of 
things instead of words — will be neglected. There may, 
indeed, be a danger lest we should teach things which 
are not the best worth learning, lest we should waste on 
mechanical arts, or on the lower branches of science, 
powers which ought to be applied to the highest prod- 
ucts of the human mind. Goethe tells us that Wilhelm 
Meister, a dreamy enthusiast, took his son Felix to be 
taught in the Paedagogic Province. On returning a year 
afterwards to see how he was getting on, he could not at 
first find him; but, as he was in an open field, he saw in 
the distance a cloud of dust. The dust developed into 
a troop of horses ; and out of this troop galloped the 
young Felix, riding a white bare-backed steed, from 
which he threw himself and fell at his father's feet. 
The rulers of the Province explained that, having tried 



REALISM. 35 



Felix at everything else, they found that he was most 
fit for breaking horses, and therefore set him that task. 
We now see Goethe's dream realized, not only in techni- 
cal education, but in the schools which are growing up 
over England for the training of young colonrsK 

An Example. — A boy is taken at fourteen, and taught 
how to build a house, to make his furniture, to manage 
a farm, to navigate a boat. This is realistic education 
with a vengeance; and the same might be said of mere 
technical training, where it does not rest upon the basis 
of general culture. Yet the extravagances to which 
this side of education may run are slight, compared with 
those which have for so many years formed the bane of 
humanism. Some exaggeration is required to redress 
the balance. It is difficult to secure improvements in 
education, and it is almost impossible to revolutionize 
an educational system. 

Difficulties. — Educational theorists write as if a single 
child, willing to be taught everything, were dealt with 
by a teacher able to impart everything. The reality is 
very different. (a) Children are taught, not singly, 
but in masses; and in a crowd the standard of conduct 
is generally that of the worst rather than that of the 
best, (b) To secure all the attention of a large number 
of children needs considerable gifts, and to force a large 
class into active co-operation with the instructor is what 
few teachers can do. (c) Again: a small proportion 
only of teachers have any special gifts of insight, live- 
liness, or imagination ; they can only carry out the 
methods in which they have been trained. 

Effect of Tradition. — Once more: every traditional 



36 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

system is protected by a large number of means and 
appliances for study which have grown up under its 
reign. The very perfection of the school-books makes 
it easier to study classical literatures and Greek and 
Koman history than any similar department of more 
modern date. The passive resistance of pupils, the 
absence of useful aids, the want of enterprise in teach- 
ers, — all militate against the substitution of a rational 
education, such as Comenius would have given, for the 
complete and elaborate drill in the arts of expression 
which we owe to Sturm and the Jesuits. 

America has been less spoiled than Europe by the 
influence of petty traditions ; and it is there, perhaps, 
that we may look for the rise of a training which will 
begin with the kindergarten, will be inspired in its 
higher branches by the enthusiasm of Milton, will 
always pierce through the veil of words to the substance 
which the words are intended to convey, and, while 
training to the full the senses of the individual and his 
mechanical powers, will not fail to set the highest value 
on the best products of the human mind, and will never, 
in the pursuit of material science, undervalue the far 
dearer treasures of poetry and philosophy. 



NATURALISM. tf 



<Et)apter XKX, 

NATURALISM. 

Training by Language Study. — The two aspects of 
education which we have already discussed have refer- 
ence to the different ways of training the intellect. 
They are, however, both liable to degenerate into ped- 
antry. "With regard to the study of language, this 
statement needs little proof, lb is difficult, under any 
circumstances, to reconcile an education which is merely 
linguistic with the preparation of the active business of 
life. Perhaps the best example of such a training was 
the rhetoric of the Eomans. Quintilian/s famous treat- 
tise on education described the training of the orator, 
and it requires some reflection to discover how so narrow 
and restricted a course can be coextensive with all that 
is demanded by the public service. It might, however, 
be so in imperial Rome. The business of Eome was to 
govern subject populations. A Roman statesman would 
have occasion for oratory in the senate, at the bar, in 
the governing of the province. Given the traditional 
inspiration which would be imbibed from a race of 
rulers, and the practice of public affairs, with which 
every Roman patrician would be familiar from his child- 
hood, the training of the orator in its widest accepta- 



3§ ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

tion might be the only addition which was considered 
necessary. 

Humanism, however, laid but little stress on the 
public use of knowledge which it gave. It taught dead, 
not living languages. The greatest scholar might 
live secluded from the world, and, as his erudition 
deepened, might become less fit either to influence or 
to understand it. 

Realism was by its nature more closely connected 
with actual life ; but that, too, might content itself with 
books, and the study of books produces bookworms. 
The rebellion against received opinions which followed 
the Reformation brought everything into question, and 
the groundwork of education with the rest. As feudal- 
ism disappeared, there was more need of such an inquiry. 
In the middle ages the education of the castle had ex- 
isted side by side with the education of the cloister. 
The knightly arts of shooting, hawking, swimming, 
riding, and other bodily accomplishments, were taught 
to the young page, as the seven studies of the trivium 
and quadrivium were taught to the young monk. As 
years went on, the idle governing classes were gradually 
subdued by aggressive instruction. 

Appeal to Nature. — The schools of the Jesuits were 
eminently fashionable, and it became necessary to appeal 
once more to nature. Men of the world and philoso- 
phers said, in giving what we call a training to the 
mind " Let us not forget that nature has deter- 
mined the quality, and a large part of the development, 
of the mind which we aspire to train. If we do our 
utmost, we can effect but little: let us be quite sure 






NATURALISM. 39 



that, in attempting to produce fchia small amount of 
good, we do not cause real barm. Let us educate, not 
for the school, but for life. Let us see what inherent 
force will effect for the mind and character of which we 
think ourselves master." There is some trace of this 
reasoning in Rabelais ; but, although he is certainly an 
anti-humanist, he should be classed as a realist rather 
than as a naturalist. 

The Three Great Naturalists. — The three great nat- 
uralists in education are Montaigne, Locke, and Rous- 
seau. Although their characters were very different, 
there is a strong similarity in their teaching. We will 
give a short account of the views of each. This is the 
more necessary, as naturalism is now rampant in our 
public schools, but its advocates and supporters have 
little notion to what philosophers they owe the princi- 
ples which they enthusiastically support. 

Rahelais. — The contrast between monkish erudition 
and the training for the world given in the castle of a 
wise noble is shown by Rabelais in the contrast between 
the clownish awkwardness of young Gargantua, and the 
modest self-possession of the page Eudaemon, who, 
"although not twelve years old, first asking leave of his 
master so to do, with his cap in his hand, a clear open 
countenance, beautiful and ruddy lips, his eyes steady 
and his looks fixed on Gargantua, standing up straight, on 
his feet, began to commend him with proper gesture, 
distinct pronunciation, and a pleasing delivery, in choice 
Latin," whereas all Gargantua did was to cry like a cow, 
and hide his face with his cap. Rabelais also lays great 
stress on bodily exercises, and shows that he considers 



40 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

the training of the body quite as important as that of 
the mind. 

Montaigne. — The educational ideas of Montaigne are 
principally contained in two essays, — one on pedantry, 
the other on the education of children. The one deals 
with the objects of education, the other with its methods. 
Montaigne says that the end of education is not to fill 
the head with a mass of knowledge, but to form the 
understanding and the heart ; not to burden the memory 
of the pupil, but to make him better and more intelli- 
gent. Antiquity presents us with well-educated states- 
men and commanders, with philosophers fit for practi- 
cal life. On the other hand, learning, which is only for 
show, is of no use to its possessor. If we only know 
what Cicero or Plato thought about a matter, we are 
merely the guardians of some one else's property instead 
of making it a possession of our own. We warm our- 
selves at our neighbor's fire instead of making one on 
our own hearth. We fill ourselves with food which we 
cannot digest. 

Independence of Thought. — The most important ob- 
ject of education is independence. The scholar must 
be able to consider and to employ what he has learned 
in a hundred different ways, lie must be taught to 
prove every opinion, submit to no authority as such. 
Learning by heart is no learning at all. Just as we can- 
not dance, ride, or fence without moving the body, so 
we cannot speak or judge with advantage without act- 
ing for ourselves. 

Health. — The mind must be supported by a healthy 
body. There must be no coddling or spoiling by fool- 



NATURALISM^ 4 1 



ish parents: the boy must be hardened to endurance 
and to pain. 

Manhood. — We are educating, not a mind and a body, 
but a man, who is compounded of the two. The pupil 
must be taught to mix with the world, to observe care- 
fully everything he sees. 

Experience rather than Books. — He must learn more 
from experience than from books. The character 
of great men is more important for him to know 
than the dates of their actions. The greater num- 
ber of sciences which we are taught are of no use. 
The pupil must not become a bookworm, but all the 
conditions of his life — his walks, his meals, solitude, 
and society — must be made serviceable for his training. 
He must be taught to speak naturally, with strength 
and emphasis; not by erudition, but by force of charac- 
ter and clearness of thought. 

The School-life. — For discipline we mustuse a kind 
severity, not punishment and compulsion. The school- 
life must be full of joy and cheerfulness. The most 
important thing is to excite a desire for study. Fathers 
should stimulate their children by their own example, 
and not keep them morosely at a distance. 

Method in Latin. — Montaigne says that he was first 
taught Latin by conversation, and he recommends the 
same course for imitation. He tells us that when seven 
years old he was entirely ignorant of French, but he 
was well acquainted with pure Latinity, and that with- 
out books and without tears. 

The Aim. — From this sketch we find that Montaigne's 
object was to educate the man of the world. He wished 



42 ASPECTS OP EDUCATION. 

fco bridge over the gulf between the gentleman and the 
scholar, which existed in his time ; but lie w r ould pro- 
duce a gentleman at any price, a scholar if possible. 

Locke. — We cannot tell whether Montaigne had a 
direct influence upon Locke, but there is no doubt that 
they agreed very materially in their views. The key- 
note of Locke's thoughts concerning education is a sound 
mind in a sound body. This, he says, is a short but full 
description of a happy state in this w T orld. He that has 
these two has little more to wish for, and he that wants 
either of them wlil be but little the better for anything 
else. The first thirty sections of his treatise are occu- 
pied with the training of the body. His maxims are 
summed up in the words, "plenty of open air, exercise, 
and sleep ; plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very 
little or no physic ; not too warm and strait clothing ; 
especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet 
often used to cold water and exposed to wet/' 

Education. — The next hundred sections are devoted 
to methods of education, but there is nothing in them 
about books. Virtue, wisdom, and breeding are to come 
before learning. These are to be taught more by pre- 
cept than by example. We are to guard our children 
against the evil influence of servants, and to rely partic- 
ularly on the persistent effect of the home. Above all, 
we are to teach knowledge of the world. Much of the 
danger which surrounds young men arises from igno- 
rance of the world. A man forewarned is forearmed. 
Breeding must come before book-learning. 

The Kind of Teacher.— Teaching is for the purposes 
of life, and not for the school : Won scholce sedvitce dis- 



NATURALISM. 43 



ciiiins. The tutor you clioo.se for your .sou should be a 
man of the world. Locke puts learning hist, because 
lie considers it us the least important learning. He says 
it must be had in the second place, as subservient only 
to greater qualities. Seek out somebody that may know 
how discreetly to frame his manners ; place him in his 
hands, where you may as much as possible secure his 
innocence; cherish and nurse up the good, and, gener- 
ally, correct and weed out any bad inclinations, and settle 
in him good habits. This is the main point, and, this 
being provided for, learning may be had into the bar- 
gain, and that, as I think, at a very easy rate. 

The Subjects. — The subjects which Locke selects for 
learning are very characteristic. He begins with read- 
ing, writing, and drawing. He then goes on to French 
and Latin ; the latter to be taught in the same way as 
French, by conversation and without grammar. He then 
passes to geography; arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, 
chronology, and history. Then follow ethics, a certain 
amount of law, — chiefly civic and constitutional law, — 
rhetoric and logic, and natural philosophy. Great im_ 
portance is attached to acquiring a good English style. 
Greek is omitted ; for Locke says that he is not consider- 
ing the education of a professed scholar, but of a gentle- 
man, to whom Latin and French, as the world now goes, 
is by every one acknowledged necessary. "When he 
comes to be a man, he can learn Greek for himself. 
What a small percentage there is, even among scholars, 
who retain the Greek they learned at school ! " The 
education thus commenced is completed by dancing, 
music, riding, and fencing. Every one should learn 



44 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 






one trade at least, if not two or three. Gardening and | 
carpentering are especially recommended, but not paint- 
ing. The pupil is to be well skilled in accounts and 
book-keeping, and his education is to be completed by 
foreign travel, which is to be deferred to an age when he 
can profit by it most completely. 

No Verses. — Locke is a great enemy of those specious 
and spurious studies which were so much affected by the 
Jesuits. He is a declared enemy to Latin verses. " Do 
not," he says, " let your child make verses of any sort ; 
for, if he has no genius for poetry, it is the most unrea- 
sonable thing in the world to torment a child, and waste 
his time, about that which can never succeed, and, if he 
has a poetical vein, it is to me the strangest thing in the 
world that a father should desire or suffer it to be im- 
proved. Poetry and gaming, which usually go together, 
are alike in this too, — that they seldom bring any advan- 
tage but to those who have nothing else to live upon." 

No Music. — He does not care any more for music, 
" which wastes so much of a young man's time to gain but 
a moderate skill in it, and engage often in such odd com- 
pany that many think it better spared." Locke here 
would differ much from Milton, who gave music a more 
dignified place in his programme. In conclusion, Locke 
tells us that what he has written is designed for the 
breeding of a young gentleman, but that he is fully 
aware that every one cannot be educated in the same 
manner ; that each man's mind lias some peculiarity, 
as well as his face, which distinguishes him from all 
others ; and that there ape possibly scarcely two chil- 
dren who can be brought up by exactly the same method. 



NATURALISM. 45 



His Plan Unconsciously Adopted. — Although public 
schools in England educate their pupils very much ac- 
cording to the precepts of Locke, they probably do so 
unconsciously, and are very little aware whose example 
they are following. Many have heard of Locke's treatise 
on education, but few have read it or tried to under- 
stand it. Whatever effect he has had has been confined 
to his own country, and he cannot be reckoned as a great 
influence in Europe. 

Rousseau. — Eousseau, on the other hand, burst upon 
the world with tremendous force. " Emile/' although 
its teaching about education is so little precise and sys- 
tematic, has made an epoch in educational systems, and 
is the parent of Pestalozzi, Froebel, and the most modern 
educators of the present day. 

His Idea. — The keynote of Kousseau's system is to 
educate in accordance with nature ; he may therefore be 
regarded as the chief of the naturalists. It is true that 
his conception of nature was warped by the principles of 
his philosophy. He considered that man in his natural 
state, as he came from the hands of his Maker, was 
perfect and that he has been spoilt by civilization. 
This idea was present to the mind of Rousseau in his 
very earliest writings. By what means, he asks, are we 
|to bring back the child of nature ? How are we to form 
that Strang character, natural man ? 

Follow Nature. — Our particular care must be to pro- 
(vide that he is not prevented from being natural ; we 
i must not educate him for any particular function, but 
| merely for the art of living. A man must be taught, 
• above everything, to lead the life of a man, and that 



46 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

must be done not so much by precept as by exercise. 
In the time of Rousseau children of the upper classes 
were brought up entirely in an artificial atmosphere. 
This, he, says, we must do away with : great • social 
changes may be before us, and we must prepare our chil- 
dren to meet them. The reformation must date from 
the very birth : mothers must take to nursing their own 
children. He says, speaking of the unnatural society 
of his own time, "Once let women become mothers 
again, and men will then become fathers and husbands. " 

Agrees with. Locke. — As the child grows, the advice of 
Rousseau corresponds with that of Locke. He is to be 
brought up in the fresh air of the country, set free from 
bands and swaddling-clothes, taught to endure pain and 
hardship and change of temperature ; he is to be fed on 
very simple food. The father has duties as well as the 
mother. As soon as the child is old enough to be influ- 
enced by the father's education, it is wicked of him to 
hand him over to another. Rousseau passes the strong- 
est condemnation on fathers who neglect their children, 
whereas he sets them the worst example by depositing 
all his children, as they were born, in the turning-box of 
the foundling-hospital. Unfortunately many fathers are 
so occupied that they cannot give their children the 
minute attention which is necessary for their education, 
so that there is no remedy but to find a tutor who will 
as nearly as possible supply the place of the father. 
The tie between tutor and pupil is to be of the closest 
character. 

Education to Twelfth Year. — The second book of 
"Emile" is concerned with the education of a child up 



NATURALISM. tf 



to twelve years of age. The principal object of this 
education is courage. The child must learn to bear suf- 
fering, and to put up with tumbles and knocks, without 
uttering a cry. Strength, health, and a good conscience 
are the objects to be aimed at. Do not reason too much 
with children at this age : they must be made obedient 
by authority, and reason will come later. The great 
object of this early education is to lose time. The child 
is not old enough for good impressions to be firmly fixed: 
we must be content with averting bad ones. A child is 
to learn the elements of property, that some things do 
and some do not belong to him ; but of erudition he is 
to learn very little. 

At twelve years, Emile is scarcely to know what a 
book is. You have educated his character by strength- 
ening his body: if he has the vigor of a man, he will 
soon have the reason of a man. During this age the 
process of hardening is to go on: he is to wear loose 

, clothing, to go with his head uncovered, to lie on the 
damp grass when hot with exercise, sleep all night, to 
rise with the daw T n, to know nothing but a hard bed, to 
fear no danger, to be accustomed to toil, unpleasantness, 
and pain, and to defend the soul with the breastplate of 
a strong body. Thus armed, he will not even be afraid 
of death. 

He is to be as much at home in the water as on dry 
land. He is to acquire arts which are found in the 

j natural savage, the instinct of finding his way in dark 
places, of measuring distances with eyes and feet, and of 
beating all those of his age by swiftness of foot. He is 
to learn the piano rather than the violin. He is to draw 



4? ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

from nature, to learn geometry rather by observation 
than by definition, to learn singing by the ear rather 
than by the notes. His appetite is to be the measure of 
his food. The sense of smell is to be educated with all 
his other senses. 

From the Twelfth Year. — At twelve years old he ceases 
to be a child: we are now to prepare him for manhood. 
We find that he is fresh, lively, open, and simple ; his 
thoughts are limited but clear ; he knows nothing by 
heart, but much by experience; he has read more in the 
book of nature than in any other book ; his wit is not on 
his tongue, but in his head ; his judgment is better 
than his memory ; he only speaks one language, but that 
sensibly. Others may speak better: Emile will act 
better. He does not follow formulas and authorities, 
but in everything which he says and does he is inspired 
by his own good sense. There is nothing artificial in his 
manner and bearing, but they are the true expression qf 
his ideas, and the result of his disposition. 

In this language, and much of the same kind, Eousseau 
sketches the child of nature. One would think again 
that, like Locke, he is depicting the English public- 
school boy; but he could not have known any such, and 
the country gentleman who favors such institutions 
would rather follow any counsel than that of a dreamy 
revolutionist. 

To Learn from His Own Observation. — The intellectual 
education which Emile receives between the ages of twelve 
and fifteen is not less remarkable than his social train- 
ing. Nothing is learned from books, everything from 
observation. The pupil is not asked to understand what 



NA TURALISM. 49 



he has taught, but to discover things for himself : for 
instance, as he takes his morning and evening walk, he 
is led to observe the course of the sun, how it rises and 
sets in different places according to the time of the year. 
In this manner he is led to ask questions about the 
course of the heavenly bodies, the form of the earth, and 
the calculation of eclipses. For the study of geography, 
no maps are placed before him. Starting from his 
home, he is led to make maps for himself. 

In this manner the natural desire of the child for 
knowledge is taken as the starting-place for learning, 
which in itself is never allowed to be a burden or trouble. 
Just as growing plants require not only light, but heat, 
so the growing man needs not only instruction, but 
amusement. Emile finds out by himself the existeuce 
of the meridian line and the peculiarity of the magnetic 
needle. He observes that by rubbing amber, glass, or 
sealing- wax, he is able to attract pieces of straw. In this 
way he learns the properties of positive and negative 
electricity, and connects them with the magnet. Going 
to the fair, he finds a conjurer who draws a waxen duck 
in different directions over a basin of water by present- 
ing to it a piece of bread: he soon guesses that the bread 
contains a magnet, and is able to imitate the trick to 
the astonishment of the conjurer. The conjurer takes 
his revenge by placing a stronger magnet under the 
table, so that the duck resists all Emile's efforts. The 
revelation of this trick is an avenue to still further 
knowledge. 

Things, Not Words. — We see here that education is 
made ^ot to depend on words, but on things. No formal 



SO ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

instruction is given. Certain tilings are observed to take 
place, and the instruction lies in the conclusions which 
are to be drawn from them. In a similar way great im- 
portance is attached to what would now be called tech- 
nical education. Emile is to have no books except 
"Robinson Crusoe," from whose example he is to learn 
how to supply all his needs. Instead of reading, he is 
to visit workshops and practise handicrafts: he will learn 
more in an hour's work than he would, in a whole day's 
explanation. Even trades are to be estimated by their 
usefulness. The blacksmith is placed higher than the 
goldsmith: the baker is worth the whole academy of 
sciences. Emile must learn a trade. What trade is best 
for him? Agriculture is exposed to too many casual 
losses. Many trades are merely the handmaids of luxury, 
and produce nothing worth having: others are unwhole- 
some either from confinement or from the attitude m 
which they are practised. There are objections to the 
more violent trades, such as masons and smiths. The 
best of all is to be a cabinet-maker, which is useful, 
cleanly, and instructive. The modern development of 
technical education seems to have followed on Rousseau's 
lines, and to have placed working in wood in the first 
rank. 

Not Knowledge, but Capacity. — Thus, when his boy's 
years come to an end, he possesses, not a great number 
of opinions and accomplishments, but the capacity for 
acquiring them. Such learning as he has is thoroughly 
natural. He does not know even the names of histoiy, 
metaphysics, morals, but he is accustomed unconsciously 
to reason about all of them. He is industrious, mod- 



NATURALISM. 5 1 



erate, patient, and courageous. He does not know what 
death is, but, if necessary, he would die without a sigh. 
He demands nothing from others, and is under no obli- 
gation to them, but stands alone and independent in 
human society. He has no errors but those which are 
avoidable, and no faults except those from which no 
man is free. He has a healthy body, active limbs, a 
mind free from prejudices, a heart without passion. He 
has been scarcely affected by self-love, the first and 
the most natural passion : he has lived contented and 
happy, and free, so far as his nature allows. Do you 
think, asks Rousseau, that a child who has thus reached 
his fifteen years can have lost the years which have pre- 
ceded ? 

Effect of "Emile." — Rousseau's book produced a great 
effect throughout Europe. It is said that Kant, the 
philosopher of Konigsberg, whose habits were more reg- 
ular than the town-clock, suspended even his daily walk 
in order to read him, yet the practical teacher will learn 
but little from him. His principal effect lay in the 
strength by which he combated existing prejudices. 
When Rousseau wrote, education had become not only 
formal and artificial, but hollow and frivolous. The 
French revolution might have altered this by its unaided 
force, but "Emile" still remains the book in which the 
' ideas of the revolution about education were expressed 
with the greatest eloquence and vigor. 

Naturalism To-day. — What shall we say about natural- 
ism in the present day ? It is largely practised uninten- 
tionally. While different studies are struggling for the 
mastery, the natural desire for games and open-air 
activity occupies the field, and claims more and more of 



52 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

the pupil's life. In the vast development of modern 
industries requiring capacities of all kinds, some educa- 
tionalists have seen an indication that special courses of 
teaching are unnecessary or useless. Nature, they say, 
and the pressure of the world's business, are the best 
teachers. How much skilled labor is demanded by a 
railway ? Who trained the pointsman, the engine-driver ? 
Who directed the complicated lines of trains, following 
and meeting each other with lightning rapidity, yet 
never colliding except by a terrible catastrophe ? 

High Development or Natural Development. — The 
teacher who follows the methods either of humanism or 
realism strives to make the best of the human mind in- 
trusted to him. He wishes to develop its faculties to 
their highest point, to stimulate its natural capacity to 
its furthest limit. But when this is done, what guar- 
anty have we that nature has any place for the in- 
strument we have so carefully finished ? If every mind 
were developed to the fullest extent which its powers 
admit of yet a large proportion of such minds might 
remain useless and barren, because they fitted into no 
place which human society supplies. Leave everything 
to Nature : she will fashion the material better, than you 
can, into the form in which she most requires it. This 
statement is a paradox; and, indeed, natural education 
is in its essence paradoxical. It will always have advo- 
cates and apostles, especially in times when there ap- 
pears to be a danger of over-refinement or over-pressure; 
but the wise educationalist will turn to it as a repository 
of cautions and warnings rather than as an armory of 
weapons fit for fighting against the ever-present enemies 
of ignorance and sloth, 



THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL. 53 



CMjaptcr XV. 

THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL. 

The English Public School Differentiated. — The term 
" public school * is difficult to define. In England it has 
a meaning different from what it has in America. The 
American public school is a school supported by the 
community, and open to all the world. When it is 
said that public schools are the back-bone of the Ameri- 
can system of education, it is implied that there exists 
all over America a number of schools affording a liberal 
education, either free or very inexpensive, accessible to 
all classes of the community alike. An English public 
school implies something exclusive and privileged. A 
public-school man is different from other men. The 
, question as to whether a particular school is a public 
school or not depends not upon its size or its efficiency, 
but upon its social rank. The American public schools 
are day schools: the English public school in the strict 
sense is essentially a boarding-school. Our public schools 
are few in number, confined to particular districts, costly, 
and very diverse in individual character; yet it is said 
that they represent more completely than any other 
English institution the chief peculiarities of our national 
life. It is the public school that forms the typical 
Englishman : it is the ordinary boy of the upper classes 



54 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION'. 

who gives his character to the public school. We have 
to inquire, first, what are the English public schools? 
second, how did they come to be what they are? third, 
what are their principal characteristics, and what rela- 
tion do they bear to the educational system of England ? 

The Mne Public Schools of England. — When the 
English Government undertook, some twenty-five years 
ago, to inquire into the condition of our secondary edu- 
cation, nine schools were singled out from the rest as 
pre-eminent. These were Winchester, Eton, Westmin- 
ster, Charter House, Harrow, Eugby, Merchant Taylor's, 
St. Paul's, and Shrewsbury. Captain de Carteret Bis- 
son, in his valuable work " Our Schools and Colleges/' 
apparently disputes the right of the last three, and 
reckons our public schools at six. These six, between 
them, do not educate much more than four thousand 
boys ; and yet they are so typical of all schools which 
may have a claim to the title of public that we may 
conveniently confine our consideration to them. Of 
these, Winchester dates from the fourteenth century ; 
Eton from the fifteenth; Westminster, Harrow, and 
Eugby from the sixteenth, these three having all been 
founded within eleven years of each other ; and Charter 
House from the seventeenth. 

Winchester. — Winchester, the oldest of the schools, 
has probably kept its character most unchanged. It has 
never been a fashionable or a court school. It has 
maintained unimpaired its close connection with New 
College at Oxford. Nothing can show more clearly the 
strength and unity of English traditions than the fact, 
that, five hundred years after the establishment of the 



THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL. 55 

two foundations of William of Wykeham, they should 
stand in the face of England, holding the highest place, 
one as a college, and the other as a school. 

Westminster. — During the first eighty years of the 
seventeenth century, Westminster undoubtedly held the 
position of pre-eminence. Dr. Busby, who read the 
prayer for the King on the morning of Charles I/s 
execution, and who refused to take off his cap in the 
presence of Charles II., was the first school-master of his 
time in England. Westminster was faithful to the 
Stuarts : Eton supported the cause of the Whigs. 

Eton. — Eton, the next on our list, is confessedly 
the first of public schools, but it was not always 
so. Its supremacy, beginning in the reign of William 
III., continued in that of Anne, reached its height 
under the Hanoverian kings. George III. took a 
strong personal interest in the school. Eton boys 
walked on the terrace of Windsor Castle in court 
dress, and the king often stopped to ask their names 
and to speak to them. William IV., with boisterous 
good-humor, continued the favor of his dynasty. He 
took the part of the boys in their rebellion against the 
masters, and he used to invite the boys to entertain- 
ments, at which the masters stood by and got nothing. 
T>uring this period Eton became a political power in 
England. The upper school at Eton is decorated with 
the busts of statesmen who swayed the destinies of 
England, and who were the more closely connected to- 
gether from having been educated at the same school. 
Chatham, North, Fox, Grenville, and Grey are among 
-,he ornaments of that historical room. Eton and Christ 



$6 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

Church had the monopoly of education for public life, 
and the claim of the school to this distinction received 
its fullest recognition when Lord Wellesley, after a 
career spent in the most important offices of the state, 
desired that he might be laid to his last rest in the 
bosom of that mother from whom he had learned every- 
thing which had made him famous, successful, and a 
patriot. Better known, perhaps, is the boast of his 
brother, the Duke of Wellington, that the battle of 
Waterloo was won in the playing-fields of Eton. 

Charter House. — Charter House, established in Lon- 
don, has held since its foundation a position very simi- 
lar to that of Winchester, not of great importance in 
politics or fashion, but highly influential and respected. 
These four schools were probably founded for the 
purposes which they have since succeeded in carrying 
out. Eton was always a school for the governing 
classes. Winchester and Charter House have received 
the uninterrupted support of the gentry and clergy 
of England. 

Harrow and Rugby. — The history of Harrow and 
Eugby has been different. They have been lifted by 
circumstances into a position for which they were not 
originally intended. They were founded as local 
schools, — one in the neighborhood of London, the other 
in the heart of the midlands, — for the instruction, first 
of the village lads, and then of such strangers as came 
to be taught. But they have reached, owing to special 
circumstances, a position equal to that of any of their 
rivals. Harrow emerged from obscurity in the middle 
of the eighteenth century, owing, as it is said, her sue- 



THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL. 57 

cess to head-masters who wore sent to her from Eton. 
Rugby is known throughout the world as the school of 
Arnold, who was head-master from 1827 to 1841. Even 
before his time it had attained a high rank among 
English schools ; but he, followed by a line of dis- 
tinguished successors, left it in scholarship and energy 
of thought at their head. Rugby and Baliol are to 
English education after the reform bill, what Eton and 
Christ Church were before it. This sketch will show 
how different the genesis of our public schools has been, 
and what various courses they have pursued to arrive at 
the same conclusion. 

The Plans of these Schools. — We will now briefly 
trace the history of the education they aim at. Their 
curriculum is essentially classical: indeed, a public- 
school man means, in common parlance, one who has 
been educated mainly in Greek and Latin. The two 
oldest schools, Winchester and Eton, founded before the 
Reformation, naturally began with monkish learning. 
There w T as a great deal of grammar and a great deal of 
church-going. The pupils were children, and were 
treated as such. Westminster was founded after, and 
in consequence of, the Reformation, and the breach with 
the old learning necessitated new arrangements. 

Sturm the Author of the Public-school Curriculum. — 
The author of the Protestant curriculum of public edu- 
cation was John Sturm, the friend of Roger Ascham, 
the head master of the great school of Strasburg during 
a large portion of the sixteenth century. A complete 
account of Sturm's methods and organization is pre- 
served, and we may be sure that its main outlines were 



58 



ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 



adopted at Westminster and at Eton. Latin grammar 
and Latin style were made the pricipal subject! of edu 
cation. The school was launched upon the full flood of 
humanism. The connection between a scholar in the 
narrow sense, that is, a man not of erudition but of fin- 
ished taste and polished style, and the gentleman, was 
now fully established. Sturm was so despotic in The 
arrangements of his school, that he not only laid down 
what boys we r e t0 learn at each epoch rf ^ ^ 

but he forbade them to learn anything else It was as 
great a fault to begin a subject prematurely as to neg- 
lect it in its due time. g 

His Plan Changed by the Jesuits—Many of Sturm's 
arrangements are familiar to public-school men who are 
now living, but in the following century they underwent 
a further change. This was due to the Jesuits, who 

stdTof ^'^f 011 Pai ' tly by their devoti - * ^e 
study of Greek, and partly by the pains they took to 

understand the individual character of their pupils! 

lhe Jesuits have probably done more harm to sound 

education than any prominent body of men who ever 

undertook the task. They had two objects in vlw" 

ZZl , G ° r ° f the rich and P ™^ ™* to pre- 
vent the human mmd from thinking. Humanistic edu- 
cat on skdully employed was an admirable instrument 

if 1 V flattered the Pride ° f P arents > while it 
cheated the ambition of scholars. The pre-eminence 
given m education to original Latin verses is tvpical of 
the whole system of the Jesuits. No exercise could be 
more pre tty and attractive, or bear more clearly the 
outward semblance of culture and learning, ^ no 



THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL. 59 



employment could more effectually delude the mind by 
an unsubstantial phantom of serious thought. The 
sturdy humanism of Sturm became corrupted by the 
graceful frivolity of the Jesuits, and in this condition 
public-school education remained until the efforts of a 
few obscure reformers, the genius and energy of Arnold 
and the growth of the new spirit in England, forced it 
into other channels. 

Arnold. — Arnold is typical of the new public school, 
but we must distinguish between Arnold and the 
Arnoldian legend. Like other great reformers, his 
name has become a nucleus round which the reputations 
of all other reformers, good as well as bad, have coa- 
lesced. The most prominent fact about Arnold is that 
he was the first Englishman of quite first-rate ability 
who devoted himself to school-education. The tradi- 
tions of Sturm and the Jesuits shrivelled up before the 
manly touch of a teacher who was fit to be prime minis- 
ter. After his career no one could despise the profes- 
sion of a school- master. What did Arnold actually 
effect ? He taught boys to govern themselves. He 
substituted for a system in which the governors were 
allowed any license on condition that they denied it to 
every one else, one in which the responsibility of the 
ruler was rated even more highly than the obligation of 
the ruled. He also taught boys to think for themselves, 
to pierce beyond the veil of words into the substance of 
things, to see realities, to touch and taste and handle 
the matter of which they had before only talked. Thus 
he produced a vigorous character and a manly mind. 
Rugby boys, on passing to the university, thought and 



60 aspects of education. 

acted for themselves. They might be pardoned if in 
the first flush of enthusiasm they acted priggishly and 
thought wildly. 

Arnold's Teaching Contained Fruitful Germs. — But 
Arnold's teaching contained within it germs of much 
which he had never contemplated, and of which he 
would have disapproved. It contained the germs of the 
modern civilized life in schools, of which Rugby knew 
nothing in 1840. Far, indeed, is the cry from that dim 
and crowded dining-room where boys, sitting at a bare 
table, wiped their knives on the iron band which sur- 
rounded it, and ate their meat and pudding off the same 
plate, to the luxurious arrangements of a modern pre- 
paratory school. It contained the germ of modern-side 
education. Arnold did not know that he was passing 
from Melanchthon to Comenius, and that the study of 
things once set rolling would soon displace the study of 
w r ords. It contained the germs of a new confidence and 
friendship between boy and master quite as different 
from the sly sentimentality of the Jesuits as it was from 
the pompous neglect of the old-fashioned courtly don. 

Bad Results. — It contained, alas ! in germ the sub- 
jection of the master to the boy in standard, tastes, and 
habits, which threatens to be the ruin of our public 
schools. It crystallized also the idea, which otherwise 
might have disappeared, that a head master must be of 
necessity a clergyman, and that no school could be 
properly conducted unless its chief sums up in the pul- 
pit every Sunday afternoon what are supposed to be the 
spiritual results of the week's emotions. It stamped 
also with permanence, by a natural misunderstanding, 



THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL. 6 1 

that conviction of a head -master's autocracy which pre- 
vents the formation in England of a profession of 
education. The history of English public schools since 
Arnold is merely the carrying-out under varying cir- 
cumstances of the teaching of his examp'e, and the 
development, sometimes to disastrous ends, of abuses 
to which that example may seem to lend currency. 

Popularity of the Public School. — A few words only 
are needed in conclusion as to the present and future of 
our public boarding-schools. Nothing has altered their 
character more than their growth in numbers, which 
has been the result of popularity. In Arnold's time no 
public school except Eton exceeded three hundred boys. 
Arnold and his contemporary head-masters might boast 
with truth that they knew every boy in the school by 
sight, his habits, his capacity, his friends. A school 
thus governed by one man, and penetrated by his influ- 
ence, differed not only in degree, but in kind, from a 
school which has of necessity become a confederation. 
In a public school of Arnold's date games were still 
amusements. Formerly neglected and ignored by peda- 
gogues, they became the nurse of every manly virtue 
when a more sympathetic eye was turned upon them. 
"Tom Brown's School-days" represents the heroism of 
the forties, — the high-water mark where boyish enter- 
prise and independence reached their height under the 
influence of manly recognition. 

Games How a Business. — During the last quarter of a 
century, games have become a serious business, instead 
of the wholesome distraction of public-school life. They 
are organized as elaborately as the work. Masters are 



62 ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 

appointed to teach tliem like any other branch of study: 
they form the basis of admiration and imitation between 
boy and boy, and the foundation of respect and obedi- 
ence between boy and master. It is difficult to keep 
large numbers of boys, with only five years difference in 
their ages, quiet and wholesome without a large devel- 
opment of games. They have been admitted to their 
full share in the school curriculum. 

Evils. — A public boarding-school is no longer a place 
where, amidst much liberty and idleness, there reigns a 
high respect for character and intellect, and where the 
ablest boys are left ample room to fashion each other 
and themselves. It is a place where the whole life is 
tabulated and arranged, where leisure, meditation, and 
individual study are discouraged, and where boys are 
driven in a ceaseless round from school to play-room, 
from play-room to school, regarding each as of equal 
importance, and bringing into the most delicate opera- 
tions of intellectual growth the spirit of coarse competi- 
tion which dominates in athletics. 

Different Schools Heeded. — It is difficult to say what 
changes public boarding-schools are destined to undergo, 
or whether in an age in which education is so much ex- 
tended a system so expensive and so exclusive can con- 
tinue to flourish. The last few years have witnessed the 
growth of large public day-schools, and any development 
of national education would be certain to increase their 
number. Although the Arnoldian system is little ap- 
plicable to them on its best side, yet they are of neces- 
sity free from most of the abuses to which that system 
has given rise. An idea may grow up that the home is, 






THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL. 



63 



after all, the best place for children, and that children are 
the best safeguard of a pure and happy home. Should 
English society in its new development prefer a kind of 
education which is the normal type of all countries but 
our own, which improved communication makes it easier 
to adopt, we shall still have public schools of which we 
should be proud . they will continue to represent our 
best national qualities, but they will be very different 
from the public boarding-schools of the past. 



The School Journal 

is published weekly at $2.50 a year and is in its 23rd year. 
It is the oldest, best known and widest circulated educational 
weekly in the U. S. The Journal is filled with ideas that will 
surely advance the teachers' conception of education. The best 
brain work on the work of professional teaching is found in it 
— not theoretical essays, nor pieces scissored out of other 
journals — The School Journal has its own special writers — 
the ablest in the world. 

THE PRIMARY SUPPLEHENT 

of The Journal, is published in separate form monthly from 
September to June at $1.00. It is the ideal paper for primary 
teachers, being devoted almost exclusively to original primary 
methods and devices. 

The Teachers' Institute 

is published monthly, at $1.25 a year ; 12 large 44 page papers 
constitute a year — most other educational monthlies publish 10, 
some 9. It is edited in the same spirit and from the same tand- 
point as the Journal, and has ever since it was started in 
1878 been the most popular educational monthly published, circu- 
lating in every state. Every line is to the point. It is finely 
printed and crowded with illustrations made for it. Every 
study taught by the average teacher is covered in each issue. 

EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 

This is not a paper : it is a series of small monthly volumes 
that bear on Professional Teaching. It is useful for those who 
want to study the foundations of education ; for Normal Schools, 
Training Classes, Teachers' Institutes and individual teachers. 
If you desire to teach professionally you will want it, Hand- 
some paper covers, 96 pp. each month. During 1892-93 Her- 
bert Spencer's famous book on 4i Education" will be printed 
in it 32 pp. at a time. This alone is worth at least $1.00. 

OUR TIMES. 

Was started two years ago to give a resume oi the important news 
I of the month — not the murders, the scandals, etc., but the news 
that bears upon the progress of the world and specially written 
for the schoolroom. In Sept. 1892 it was doubled in size, the 8 
extra pages giving many fresh dialogues, recitations and dec- 
lamations, and exercises for special days. This material alone 
during tne year would cost at least 50 cents in the cheapest 
book form. Club rates, 40 cents. 
*#* Select the paper suited to your needs and send fot a free sample. 
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the same book UDder several titles; for instance, Currie's Early Education 
appears under Principles and Practice of Education, and also 
Primary Education. Recent books are starred, thus * 

HISTOEY OF EDUCATION, GREAT EDU- 
CATORS, ETC. Retalu 

♦Allen's Historic Outlines of Education, - - paper .15 .12 .01 

♦Browning's Aspects of Education Best edition. cloth .25 .20 .03 

M Educational Theories, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

♦Kellogg's Life of Pestalozzi, - paper .15 .12 .01 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 

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Perez's First Three Years of Childhood. Best edition, cl. 1.50 1.20 .10 

Welch's Teachers' Psychology, - - - - cl. 1.25 1.00 .10 

44 Talks on Psychology, - - - - cl. .50 .40 .05 

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Carter's Artificial Stupidity in School, - - paper .15 .12 

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Payne's Lectures on Science and Art of Education, cl. 1.00 .80 

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Tate's Philosophy of Education. Best edition. - cl. 1.50 1.20 

♦Teachers' Manual Series, 22 nos. ready, each, paper ,15 .12 

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION 

Currie's Early Education, ----- cl. 1.25 1.00 

Fitch's Art of Questioning, ----- paper .15 .12 

** Art of Securing Attention - paper .15 .12 

'* Lectures on Teaching, - cl. 1.2 > 1.00 

Hughes' Mistakes in Teaching. Best edition. - cl. .50 .40 

" Securing and Retaining Attention, Best ed. cl. .50 .40 

♦Parker's Talks at Chautauqua. Nearly ready. cl. 

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Practical Teacher, - - _ - - C l. 1.50 1.20 

Quick's How to Train the Memory, - paper .15 .12 

♦Reinhart's Principles of Education, - - cl. .15 .12 

♦ M Civics in Education, - cl. .25 .'to 
South wick's Quiz Manual of Teaching, - - cl. .75 .60 
Yonge's Practical Work in School, - ' - paper .15 .12 

METHODS OF TEACHING 

♦Augsburg's Easy Drawings for Geog. CJ ass, - paper .50 .40 

M Easy Things to Draw, - paper .30 .24 

Calkins' Ear and Voice Training, - cl. .50 .40 

Dewey's How to Teach Manners, - cl. .50 .40 

Gladstone's Object Teaching, - - - - paper .15 .12 

Johnson's Education by Doing, - - - cl. .75 .60 

♦Kellogg's How to Write Compositions - - paper .15 .12 

11 Map Drawing. Nearly ready. - cl. 

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SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 

Kellogg's School Management. - cl. .75 .60 .05 

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KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 

Autobiography of Froebel, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

Hoffman's Kindergarten Gifts, - paper .15 .I* .01 

PRIMARY EDUCATION 

Calkins 1 Ear and Voice Training, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

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M Grube Idea in Primary Arithmetic, - cl. .30 .24 .03 

MANUAL TRAINING 

Butler's Argument for Manual Training, - - paper .15 .12 .01 

Leland's Practical Education, - cl. 2.00 1.60 .10 

Love's Industrial Education, - cl. 1.50 1.20 .12 

*Uph*im's Fifty Lessons in Woodworking, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

QUESTION BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 

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U. S. History, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

Grammar, - - cl. .50 .40 .05 

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Southwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching. Best edition, cl. .75 .60 .05 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION and SCHOOL HYGIENE 

*BalJin's Physical Education. (In preparation.) 

Groif' s School Hygiene, - paper .15 .12 .01 

MISCELLANEOUS 

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Lubbock's Best 100 Books, ----- paper .20 .16 .02 

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Aliens Mind Studies for Young Teach- 

ers. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor of the 
School Journal, Prof, of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of 
N. Y. 16nio, large, clear type, 128 pp. Cloth, 50 cents ; to 
teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

There are many teachers who 
know little about psychology, 
and who desire to be better in- 
formed concerning its princi- 
ples, especially its relation to 1 he 
work of teaching. For the aid 
of such, this book has been pre- 
pared. But it is not a psychol- 
ogy — only an introduction to it, 
aiming to give some funda- 
mental principles, together with 
something concerning the phi- 
losophy of education. Its meth- 
od is subjective rather than ob- 
jective, leading the student to 
watch mental processes, and 
draw his own conclusions. It 
is written in language easy to 
be comprehended, and has many 
Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor Poetical illustrations. It will 
of the Journal and institute. aid the teacher in his daily work 
in dealing with mental facts and states. 

To most teachers ps3 r chology seems to be dry. This book shows 
how it may become the most interesting of all studies. It also 
shows how to begin the knowledge of self. " We cannot know 
in others what we do not first know in ourselves." This is the 
key-note of this book. Students of elementary psychology will 
appreciate this feature of " Mind Studies." 
ITS CONTENTS. 

CHAP. 

I. How to Study Mind. 
II. Some Facts in Mind Growth. 

III. Development. 

IV. Mind Incentives. 
V. A few Fundamental Principles 

Settled. 
VI. Temperaments. 
VII. Training of the Senses. 
VIII. Attention. 
IX. Perception. 
X. Abstraction. 

XI. Faculties used in Abstract 
Thinking. 




CHAP. 

XII. From the Subjective to the 
Conceptive. 

XIII. The Wilf 

XIV. Diseases of the Will. 
XV. Kinds of Memory. 

XVI. The Sensibilities. 
XVII. Relation of the Sensibilities 

to the Will. 
XVIII. Training of the Sensibilities. 
XIX. Relation of the Sensibilities 
to Morality. 
XX. The Imagination. 
XX I Imagination in its Maturity. 
XXI L Education of the Moral Sense. 



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Aliens Temperament in Education. 

With directions concerning How to Become A Successful 

Teacher. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Author of "Mind 

Studies for Young Teachers," etc. Cloth, 16mo. Price, 50 

cents, to teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

There is no book in the English language accessible to 

students on this important subject, yet it is a topic of so much 

importance to all who wish to become better acquainted with 

themselves that rts suggestions will find a warm welcome 

everywhere, especially by teacheis. The value of the book will 

be readily seen by noticing the subjects discussed. 

CONTENTS :— How we can know Mind— Native Characteristics of 
Children— How to Study Ourselves— The Sanguine Temperament— The 
Bilious Temperament— The Lymphatic Temperament— The Nervous 
Temperament— Physical Characteristics of each Temperament : Tabula- 
ted—The best Temperament— How to Conduct Self Study— Many Per- 
sonal Questions for Students of Themselves— How to Improve— Specific 
Directions— How to Study Children— How Children are Alike, How 
Different— Facts in Child Growth: Tabulated and Explained— How to 
Promote Healthy Child Growth. Full directions concerning how to 
treat temperamental differences. How to effect change in tempera- 
ment. 

Under "How to Become A Successful Teacher," the 
following topics are discussed : " What books and papers to 
read."—" What schools to visit."—" What associates to select." 
— " What subjects to study."—" How to find helpful critics."— 
"How to get the greatest good from institutes."— " Shall I 
attend a Normal school ? " * r How to get a good and perman- 
ent position ? " " How to get good pay ? " " How to grow a 
better teacher year after year." "Professional honesty and 
dishonesty."-—" The best and most enduring reward." 



Blaikies Self Culture, 



By John Stuart Biaikie. 16mo, 64 pp., limp cloth. Price, 25 
cents; to teachers, 20 cents; by mail, 3 cents extra. 

Three invaluable practical essays on the Culture of the Intel- 
lect, on Physical Culture, on Moral Culture. In its 64 pages this 
little volume contains a vast amount of excellent advice. It will 
help hundreds of young teachers to make a right start, or set 
them right if they are on the wrong track. Although published 
expressly for teachers, it will prove profitable reading for all, no 
matter what their calling, who wish to improve— and who does 
not? As a part of a course of reading, some such book is invalu- 
able, and should be read over and over again. Mr. Blaikie's book, 
in its present form, is so neat yet cheap, that it ought to be read 
by every young teacher in the country, and to be on every read- 
ing-circle list. It is to be a prominent book on the new profee* 
uional course of reading for teachers. 

Nicely printed, with side-heads and bound in limp "*lot&» 



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Amsburz's Easy Things to Draw. 

SSg r. siSe- dewing" "at dog, lion coffee-berry, etc. 
o3t of Blackboard Stencils is in tie same bne. 

J uashurts Easy Drawings for the Geo- 

TnthtaVolome is the same excellent work that was noted in Mr. 

present a s yBtemof ■ dr a ™^ °™ ™ *a d s0 constructed that any 
made m the simples t P° ss1 ^ J^' a educat ors believe that draw- 

W^iu ass -H^r 3SSSl,£i 

An index brings the plates instantly to the eye. 



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Brownings Educational Theories. 

UJLI HM C— — P— — — MUMI I ■ ■■— Mw»mn— — )T— Wl 1 II II II— ■ II 

By Oscar Browning, M.A., of King's College, Cambridge, 

Eng. No. 8 of Beading Circle Library Series. Cloth, 16mo, 

237 pp. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 

cents extra. 

This work has been before the public some time, and for a 

general sketch of the History of Education it has no superior. 

Our edition contains several new features, making it specially 

valuable as a text-book for Normal Schools, Teachers' Classes, 

Beading Circles, Teachers' Institutes, etc., as well as the student 

of education. These new features are: (1) Side-heads giving the 

subject of each paragraph; (2) each chapter is followed by an 

analysis; (3) a very full new index; (4) also an appendix on 

" Froebel," and the " American Common School." 

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS. 

1. Education among the Greeks— Music and Gymnastic Theo- 
ries of Plato and Aristotle; II. Roman Education — Oratory; III. 
Humanistic Education; IV. The Realists — Ratich and Comenius; 
V. The Naturalists — Rabelais and Montaigne; VI. English 
Humorists and Realists — Roger Ascham and John Milton; VII. 
Locke; VIII. Jesuits and Jansenists; IX. Rousseau; X. Pes- 
talozzi; XI. Kant, Fichte, and Herbart; XII. The English Pub- 
lic School ; XIII. Froebel ; XIV. The American Common 
School. 

PRESS NOTICES. 

Ed. Courant.— " This edition surpasses others in its adaptability to gen- 
eral use." 

Col. School Journal.—' 4 Can be used as a text-book in the History of 
Education." 

Pa. Ed. News.— 44 A volume that can be used as a text-book on the His- 
tory of Education." 

School Education, Minn.— 44 Beginning with the Greeks, the author pre- 
sents a brief but clear outline of the leading educational theories down to 
the present time." 

Ed. Review, Can.— 44 A book like this, introducing the teacher to the great 
minds that have worked in the same field, cannot but be a powerful stimulus 
to him in his work." 



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Calkins Ear and Voice Training by 

Means of Elementary Sounds of Language. By N. A. 
Calkins, Assistant Superintendent N. Y. City Schools ; 
author of " Primary Object Lessons," "Manual of Object 
Teaching," " Phonic Charts," etc. Cloth. 16mo, about 100 
pp. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. 
An idea of the character of this work may be had by the fol- 
lowing extracts from its Pi'eface : 

u The common existence of abnormal sense perception among school 
children is a serious obstacle in teaching. This condition is most 

obvious in the defective perceptions 
of sounds and forms. It may be 
seen in the faulty articulations in 
speaking and reading ; in the ina- 
bility to distinguish musical sounds 
readily ; also in the common mis- 
takes * made in hearing what is 
said. . . . 

"Careful observation and long 
experience lead to the conclusion 
that the most common defects in 
sound perceptions exist because of 
lack of proper training in childhood 
to develop this power of the mind 
into activity through the sense of 
hearing. It becomes, therefore, a 
. matter of great importance in edu- 
cation, that in the training of chil- 
dren due attention shall be given to 
the development of ready and accu- 
rate perceptions of sounds. 

" How to give this training so as 
to secure the desired results is a 
subject that deserves the careful 
attention of parents and teachers. 
bupT. N. A. Calkins. Much depends upon the manner of 

presenting the sounds of our language to pupils, whether or not the 
results shall be the development in sound-perceptions that will train 
the ear and voice to habits of distinctness and accuracy in speaking and 
reading. 

" The methods of teaching given in this book are the results of an 
extended experience under such varied conditions as may be found 
with pupils representing all nationalities, both of native and foreign 
born children. The plans described will enable teachers to lead their 
pupils to acquire ready and distinct perceptions through sense train- 
ing, and cause them to know the sounds of our language in a manner 
that will give practical aid in learning both the spoken and the written 
language. The simplicity and usefulness of the lessons need only to be 
known to be appreciated and used*" 




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Dewey's How to Teach Manners in the 

School-Room. By Mrs. Julia M. Dewey, Principal of the 
Normal School at Lowell, Mass., formerly Supt. of Schools 
at Hoosick Falls, N. Y. Cloth, 16mo, 104 pp. Price, 50 
cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

Many teachers consider the manners of a pupil of little impor- 
tance so long as he is industrious. But the boys and girls are to 
be fathers and mothers; some of the boys will stand in places of 
importance as professional men, and they will carry the mark of 
ill-breeding all their lives. Manners can be taught in the school- 
room: they render the school- room more attractive; they banish 
tendencies to misbehavior. In this volume Mrs. Dewey has shown 
how manners can be taught. The method is to present some fact 
of deportment, and then lead the children to discuss its bearings; 
thus they learn why good manners are to be learned and practised. 
The printing and binding are exceedingly neat and attractive." 

OUTLINE OF 

Introduction. 

General Directions. 

Special Directions to Teachers. 



Lessons on Manners for Youngest 

Pupils. 
Lessons on Manners — Second Two 

Years. 
Manners in School— First Two Years. 

" tv Second " 

Manners at Home— First " 

Second M 

Manners in Public— First " 

'" " Second " 



CONTENTS. 

Table Manners— First Two Years. 

" " Second " 

Lessons on Manners for Advanced 

Pupils. 
Manners in School. 
Personal Habits. 
Manners in Public. 
Table Manners. 
Manners in Society. 
Miscellaneous Items. 
Practical Training in Manners. 
Suggestive Stories, Fables, Anec- 
dotes, and Poems. 
Memory Gems. 

Central School Journal.— " It furnishes illustrative lessons. , ' 
Texas School Journal.—" They (the pupils) will carry the mark of ill- 
breeding all their lives (unless taught otherwise)." 

Pacific Ed. Journal.—" Principles are enforced by anecdote and conver- 
sation." 
Teacher's Exponent.—" We believe such a book will be very welcome." 
National Educator.— " Common-sense suggestions." 
Ohio Ed. Monthly.—" Teachers would do well to get it." 
Nebraska Teacher.—" Many teachers consider manners of little im- 
portance, but some of the boys will stand in places of importance." 
School Educator.— " The spirit of the author is commendable." 
School Herald.—" These lessons are full of suggestions." 
Va. School Journal.— "Lessons furnished in a delightful style." 
Miss. Teacher.—" The best presentation we have seen." 
Ed. Courant.— " It is simple, straightforward, and plain." 
Iowa Normal Monthly.—" Practical and well-arranged lessons on man- 
ners." 

Progressive Educator.—" Will prove to be most helpful to the teacher 
who desires her pupils to be well-mannered." 



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Fitch's Lectures on Teaching. 

Lectures on Teaching. By J. G. Fitch, M.A., one of Her 
Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. England. Cloth, 16mo, 
395 pp. Price, $1.2o ; to teachers, $1 .00 ; by mail, postpaid. 

Mr. Fitch takes as his topic the application of principles to 
the art of teaching in schools. Here are no- vague and gen- 
eral propositions, but on every page we find the problems of 
the school-room discussed with definiteness of mental grip. 
No one who has read a single lecture by this eminent man 
but will desire to read another. The book is full of sugges- 
tions that lead to increased power. 

1. These lectures are highly prized in England. 

2. There is a valuable preface by Thos. Hunter, President 
of N. Y. City Normal College. 

3. The volume has been at once adopted by several Stale 
Reading Circles. 

EXTRACT FROM AMERICAN PREFACE. 
11 Teachers everywhere among English-speaking peonle have hailed 
Mr. Fitch's work as an invaluable aid for almost every kind of instruc- 
tion and school organization. It combines the theoretical and the prac- 
tical ; it is based on psychology ; it gives admirable advice on every- 
thing connected witn teaching— from the furnishing of a school-room 
to the preparation of questions for examination. Its style is singularly 
clear, vigorous and harmonious." 

Chicago Intelligence.— " All of its discussions are based on sound 
psychological principles and give admirable advice." 

Virginia Edncational Journal.—*' He tells what he thinks so as to 
be helpful to all who are striving to improve.' 1 

Lynn Evening Item.— " He gives admirable advice." 

Philadelphia Becord— " It is not easy to imagine a more useful vol- 
ume." 

Wilmington Every Evening.—" The teacher will find in it a wealth 
of help and suggestion." 

Brooklyn Journal.—' 1 His conception of the teacher is a worthy ideal 
for all to bear in mind." 

New England Journal of Education : " This is eminently the work oi 
a man of wisdom and experience. He takes a broad and comprehensive 
view of the work of the teacher, and his suggestions on all topics are 
worthy of the most careful consideration." 

Brooklyn Eagle : "An invaluable aid for almost every kind of in- 
struction and school organization. It combines the theoretical and the 
practical ; it is based on psychology ; it gives admirable advice on every- 
thing connected with teaching, from the furnishing of a school-room to 
the preparation of questions for examination." 

Toledo Blade : " It is safe to say, no teacher can lay claim to being 
well informed who has not read this admirable work. Its appreciation 
is shown by its adoption by Beveral R**»te Teachers 1 Blading Circles, as 
a work to be thoroughly read bj its 4us*ut>-r3." 



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20 R L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 

Hughes Securing and Retaining Atten-* 

tion. By James L. Hughes, Inspector Schools; Toronto, 
Canada, author of " Mistakes in Teaching." Cloth, 116 pp. 
Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

This valuable little book has already become widely known to 
American teachers. Our new edition has been almost entirely 
re-written, and several new important chapters added. It is the 
only authorized copyright edition. Caution. — Buy no other. 

WHAT IT CONTAINS. 

I. General Principles; II. Kinds of Attention; III. Characteristics of Good 
Attention; IV. Conditions of Attention; V. Essential Characteristics of the 
Teacher in Securing and Retaining Attention; VI. How to Control a Class; 
VII. Methods of Stimulating and Controlling a Desire for Knowledge; VIII. 
How to Gratify and Develop the Desire for Mental Activity; IX. Distracting 
Attention; X. Training the Power of Attention; XI. General Suggestions 
regarding Attention. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

S. P. Kobbins, Pres. McGill Normal School, Montreal, Can., writes to Mr. 
Hughes:—" It is quite superfluous for me to say that your little books are 
admirable. I was yesterday authorized to put the ' Attention ' on the list 
of books to be used in the Normal School next year. Crisp and attractive 
in style, and mighty by reason of its good, sound common-sense, it is a 
book that every teacher should know." 

Popular Educator (Boston):—" Mr. Hughes has embodied the best think- 
ing of H!s life in these pages." 

Central School Journal (la.).—" Though published four or five years 
since, this book has steadily advanced in popularity." 

Educational Courant (Ky.).— "It is intensely practical. There isn't a 
mystical, muddy expression in the book." 

Educational Times (England).—" On an important subject, and admir- 
ably executed." 
School Guardian (England).—" We unhesitatingly recommend it." 
New England Journal of Education.—" The book is a guide and a 
manual of special value." 

New York School Journal.— " Every teacher would derive benefit from 
reading this volume." 

Chicago Educational Weekly.— " The teacher who aims at best suc- 
cess should study it." 

Phil. Teacher.—" Many who have spent months in the school-room would 
be benefited by it." 
Maryland School Journal.—" Always clear, never tedious." 
Va. Ed. Journal.—" Excellent hints as to securing attention." 
Ohio Educational Monthly.—" We advise readers to send for a copy." 
Pacific Home and School Journal.—" An excellent little manual." 
Prest. James H. Hoose, State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y., says:— 
"The book must prove of great benefit to the profession.'' 

Supt. A. W. Edson, Jersey City, N. J., says:—" A good treatise has long 
been needed, and Mr. Hughes has supplied the want." 



SEND ALL. ORDERS TO 

22 £. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK <Sb CHICAGO. 

Kellogg s School {Management : 

" A Practical Guide for the Teacher in the School-Room." 

By Amos M. Kellogg, A.M. Sixth edition. Revised and 

enlarged. Cloth, 128 pp. Price, 75 cents ; to teachers, GO 

cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

This book takes up the most difficult of all school work, 

viz. : the Government of a school, and is tilled with original 

and practical ideas on the subject. It is invaluable to the 

teacher who desires to make his school a " well-governed" 

school. 

1. It suggests methods of awakening an interest in the 
studies, and in school work. * 'The problem for the teacher, " 
says Joseph Payne, " is to get the pupil to study." If he can do 
this he will be educated. 

2. It suggests methods of making the school attractive. 
Ninety-nine hundredths of the teachers think young people 
should come to school anyhow ; the wise ones "know that a 
pupil who wants to come to school will do something when 
he gets there, and so make the school attractive. 

3. Above all it shows that the pupils will be self -governed 
when well governed. It shows how to develop the process of 
self-government. 

4. It shows how regular attention and courteous behaviour 
may be secured. 

5. It has an admirable preface by that remarkable man and 
teacher, Dr. Thomas Hunter, Pres. N. Y. City Normal College. 

Home and School.— " Is just the book for every teacher who wishes 
to be a better teacher." 

Educational Journal.—' 1 It contains many valuable hints." 

Boston Journal of Education.— " It is the most humane, instructive, 
original educational work we have read in many a day." 

Wis. Journal of Education.— " Commends itself at once by the num- 
ber of ingenious devices for securing order, industry, and interest. 

Iowa Central School Journal.— " Teachers will find it a helpful and 
suggestive book/' 

Canada Educational Monthly.—" Valuable advice and useful sugges 
tions." 

Normal Teacher.—" The author believes the way to manage is to civ- 
ilize, cultivate, and refine." 

School Moderator.— 4 ' Contains a large amount of valuable reading ; 
school government is admirably presented." 

Progressive Teacher.— "Should occupy an honored place in ever? 
teacher's library." 

Ed. Courant.— "It will help the teacher greatly. 1 

Va e Ed. Journal.—" The author dxawa from a large experience." 



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E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 25 CLINTON- PLAGE, N. Y. 23 



--INDUSTRIAL- 
--EDUCATION; 



Loves Industrial Education. 

Industrial Education ; a guide to Manual Training. By 
Samuel G. Love, principal of the Jamestown, (N. Y.) 
public schools. Cloth, 12mo, 330 pp. with 40 full-page 
plates containing nearly 400 figures. Price, $1.50; to 
teachers, $1.20 ; by mail, 12 cents extra. 
1. Industrial Education not understood. Probably the only 
man who has wrought out the problem in a practical way is 

Samuel G. Love, the superin- 
tendent of the Jamestown (N. 
Y.) schools. Mr. Love has now 
about 2,400 children in the 
primary, advanced, and high 
schools under his charge ; ho 
is assisted by fifty teachers, so 
that an admirable opportunity 
was offered. In 1B74 (about 
fourteen years ago) Mr. Love 
began his experiment ; gradu- 
ally he introduced one occu- 
pation, and then another, until 
at last nearly all the pupils are 
following some form of educat- 
ing work, 

2. Why it is demanded. The 
reasons for introducing it are 
clearly stated by Mr. Love. It 
was done because the educa* 
tion of the books left the pu- 
pils unfitted to meet the prac« 
tical problems the world asks them to solve. The world does 
not have a field ready for the student in book-lore. The state- 
ments of Mr. Love should be carefully read. 

3. It is an educational book. Any one can give some 
formal work to girls and boys. What has been needed has 
been some one who could find out what is suited to the little 
child who is in the " First Reader," to the one who is in the 
"Second Eeader," and so on. It must be remembered the 
effort is not to make carpenters, and type-setters, and dress- 
makers of boys and girls, but to educate them by these occupa- 
tion* better than mthout them* 




*LOVE« 



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C U K L. KELLOGG cfc CO.. NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 

4. It tells the teacher just what to do. Every teacher should 
put some form of Manual Training* into his school. At pres- 
ent the only ones are Gymnastics, Writing, and Drawing. 
But there are, it is estimated, more than thirty forms of 
Industrial Work that may be made educative. The teacher 
who studies this book will want to try some of these forms. 
He will find light on the subject. 

5. It must be noted that a demand noiv exists for men and 
ivomen to give Industrial Training. Those teachers who are 
wise will begin now to study this important subject. The 
city of New York has decided to introduce it into its schools, 
where 140,000 pupils are gathered. It is a mighty undertak- 
ing, but it will succeed. The people see the need of a differ- 
ent education than that given by the books. Book education 
is faulty, partial, incomplete. But where are the men and 
women to come from who can give instruction ? Those who 
read this book and set to work to introduce its methods into 
their schools will be fitting themselves for higher positions. 

The Lutheran Observer says :— " This volume on Manual Teaching 
oii^lit to be speedily introduced into all the public schools. It is admir- 
ably adapted for its purpose and we recommend it to teachers every- 
where." 

The Nashville American says :— " This is a practical volume. It 
embodies the results of many years of trial in a search after those 
occupations that will educate in the true sense of the word. It is not a 
work dealing in theories or abstractions, but in methods and details, 
such as will help the teacher or parent selecting occupations for chil- 
dren." 

West Virginia School Journal.— u It shows what can be done by a 
resolute and spirited teacher." 

Burlington Free Press.—" An excellent hand book.' 1 

Prin. Sherman Williams, Glens Falls, N. Y.— U I am sure it will 
greatly aid the solution of this difficult problem." 

Prof. Edward Brooks, Late Principal Millersburg, (Pa.) Normal 
School.— 14 It is a much needed work ; is the best book I have seen." 

Supt. S. T. Button, New Haven.— " The book is proof that some 
practical results have been reached and is full of promise for the 
future. 

Supt. John E. Bodley, Minneapolis.— "I know of no one more com- 
petent to tell other supermteudents and teachers how to introduce Man- 
ual Training than Prof. Love." 

Oil City Blizzard.—" The system he has marked out must be a good 
one, or he would never have allowed it to go out." 

Buffalo Times.— 4 ' Teachers are looking into this subject and this will 
help them." 

Boston Advertiser.— " A plain unvarnished explanation." 

Jamestown, N. Y. Evening Journal- "In the hands of an intelligent 
teacher cannot fail to yield satisfactory results." 



6KSB ALL O&DEltS £0 

B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 25 

*Paynes Lectures on the Science and 

Art of Education. Reading Circle Edition. By Joseph 
Payne, the first Professor of the Science and Art of Edu- 
cation in the College of Preceptors, London, England. 
With portrait. 16mo, 350 pp., English cloth, with gold 
back stamp. Price, $1.00 ; to teachers, 80 cents ; by mail, 
7 cents extra. Elegant new edition from new plates. 

Teachers who are seeking U 
know the principles of education 
will find them clearly set forth in 
this volume. It must be remem- 
bered that principles are the basis 
upon which all methods of teach- 
ing must be founded. So valu- 
able is this book that if a teacher 
were to decide to own but three 
works on education, this would 
be one of them. This edition 
contains all of Mr. Payne's writ- 
ings that are in any other Ameri- 
can abridged edition, and is the 
only one with his portrait. It ia 
far superior to any other edition 
published. 
Joseph Payne. 

WHY THIS EDITION IS THE BEST 
(1.) The side-titles. These give the contents of the page, 
(2.) The analysis of each lecture, with reference to the educa- 
tional points in it. (3.) The general analysis pointing out the 
three great principles found at the beginning. (4.) The index, 
where, under such heads as Teaching, Education, The Child, 
the important utterances of Mr. Payne are set forth. (5.) 
Its handy shape, large type, fine paper, and press-work and 
tasteful binding. All of these features make this a most val- 
uable book. To obtain all these features in one edition, it 
was found necessary to get out this new edition. 

Ohio Educational Monthly.— "It does not deal with shadowy tneories; 
It is intensely practical." 

Philadelphia Educational News— " Ought to be in library of every 
progressive teacher." 

Educational Courant.— " To know how to teach, more if needed than 
a knowledge of the branches taught. This is especially valuable." 

Pennsylvania Journal of Education.— " Will be of practical value U 
Normal Schools and Institute 




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E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO 27 

Parkers Talks on Teaching. 

Notes of "lalkson Teaching" given by Col. Francis W« 
Parker (formerly Superintendent of schools of Quincy, 
Mass.), before the Martha's Vineyard Institute, Summer 
of 1882. Reported by Lelia E. Patridge. Square 16mo, 
5x6 1-2 inches, 192 pp., laid paper, English cloth. Price, 
$1.25 ; to teachers, $1.00 ; by mail, 9 cents extra. 
The methods of teaching employed in the schools of Quincy, 
Mass., were seen to be the methods of nature. As they were 
copied and explained, they awoke a great desire on the part 
of those who could not \ isit the schools to know the underly- 
ing principles. In other words, Colonel Parker was asked to 
explain why he had his teachers teach thus. In the summer 
of 1882, in response to requests, Colonel Parker gave a course 
of lectures before the Martha's Vineyard Institute, and these 
were reported by Miss Patridge, and published in this book. 

The book became famous \ 
more copies were sold of it in 
the same time than of any 
other educational book what- 
ever. The daily papers, which 
usually pass by such books 
with a mere mention, devoted 
columns to reviews of it. 
^§^H§ The following points wiD 

show why the teacher will 
want this book. 

1. It explains the " New 
Methods." There is a wide 
gulf between the new and the 
old education. Even school 
boards understand this. 

2. It gives the underlying 
principles of education. For it 

must be remembered that Col. Parker is not expounding his 
methods, but the methods of nature. 

3. It gives the ideas of man who is evidently an •• educa- 
tional genius," a man born to understand and expound educa 
tion. We have fuw such ; they are worth everything to the 
human race. 

4. It gives a biography of Col. Parker. This will help the 
teacher of education to comprehend the man and his motives. 

5. It has been adopted b^nearLv ©very State Heading Circle 




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S. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 



41 



Song Treasures, 



THE PRICE HAS BEEN 
GREATLY REDUCED. 



Compiled by Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Joui^ 
nal. Beautiful and durable postal-card manilla cover, 
printed in two colors, G4 pp. Price, 15 cents each; to teachers, 
12 cents; by mail, 2 cents extra. 30th thousand. Write for 
our special terms to schools for quantities. Special terms for use 
at Teachers' Institutes. 
This is a most iffifiiHii 
valuable col- J 
lection of mu- 
sic for all" 
schools and in- 
stitutes. 

1. Most ofj 
the pieces have 
been selected I 
by the teachers ^ 
as favorites in 
t h e schools. 
They are the 
ones the pupils 
iove to sing. 
It contains 
nearly 100 1 
pieces. 

2. All the pieces " have a ring 
learned, and will not be forgotten. 

3. The themes and words are appropriate for young people. 
In these respects the work will be found to possess unusual merit. 
Nature, the Flowers, the Seasons, the Home, our Duties, our 
Creator, are entuned with beautiful music. 

4. Great ideas may find an entrance into the mind through 
music. Aspirations for the good, the beautiful, and the true are 
presented here in a musical form. 

5. Many of the words have been written especially for the 
book. One piece, "The Voice Within Us," p. 57, is worth the 
price of the book. 

6. The titles here given show the teacher what we mean : 

Ask the Children, Beauty Everywhere, Be in Time, Cheerfulness, 
Christmas Bells, Days of Summer Glory, The Dearest Spot, Evening Song, 
Gentle Words, Going to School, Hold up the Right Hand, I Love the Merry, 
Merry Sunshine, Kind Deeds, Over in the Meadows, Our Happy School, 
Scatter the Germs of the Beautiful, Time to Walk, The Jolly Workers, Th# 
Teacher's Life, Tribute to Whittier, etc., etc. 




they are easily 






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